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Battle of Nomonhan (Khalkhin Gol, 1939)
A major border conflict between Japanese and Soviet forces at the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the summer of 1939. Soviet forces under General Zhukov decisively defeated the Japanese, inflicting approximately 18,000 casualties. The defeat discouraged Japan's 'Strike North' strategy and pushed it toward expansion into Southeast Asia instead.
Guerrilla tactics
Strategy using mobility, ambush and knowledge of terrain against stronger forces.
Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937)
A clash between Japanese and Chinese troops at Lugouqiao (Marco Polo Bridge) near Beijing on 7 July 1937. A Japanese soldier went missing during a night exercise, and Japan demanded to search the nearby town of Wanping. China refused, and fighting erupted. Japan used the incident to escalate into a full-scale invasion of China, marking the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938)
The mass killing, rape, and looting carried out by Japanese troops after capturing Nanjing (China's capital) in December 1937. Over a six-week period, an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians and prisoners of war were killed. The atrocity was widely reported in Western media and remains one of the most controversial episodes of the war, with ongoing disputes over the death toll between Chinese and Japanese historians.
New Order in East Asia
A policy announced by Japanese Prime Minister Konoe in November 1938, envisioning a Japanese-led political and economic bloc in East Asia. It aimed to replace Western influence with Japanese hegemony and justify continued expansion in China.
Three Alls Policy (Sanko Sakusen)
A scorched-earth counter-insurgency strategy used by the Japanese military in occupied China, particularly against communist base areas. The policy of 'kill all, burn all, loot all' (sanko sakusen) aimed to destroy civilian support for guerrilla resistance. It devastated rural communities and contributed to an estimated 2.7 million Chinese civilian deaths in northern China.