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Bonus Army (1932)
Protest by WWI veterans in Washington D.C. demanding early bonuses; its suppression highlighted Hoover’s political isolation.
Descamisados
Descamisados, or "shirtless ones" in Spanish, were the impoverished and working-class supporters of Argentine president Juan Perón during the mid-20th century.
Estado Novo (1937–1945)
Vargas’s authoritarian regime emphasizing nationalism, state-led industrialization, and social control through corporatist labor policies.
Export monoculture
An economy reliant on a single export product, leaving it vulnerable to global market fluctuations.
Gold Standard
A monetary system tying national currencies to gold reserves; restricted economic flexibility during the Depression.
Great Depression
A severe worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 with the Wall Street Crash and lasted through the 1930s. It caused mass unemployment, collapsed international trade, and destabilised democratic governments, contributing to the rise of extremist movements in Europe.
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
Economic strategy promoting domestic industry to replace foreign imports, reducing dependence on global markets
Indigenismo
A political and cultural movement in early twentieth-century Latin America that celebrated Indigenous heritage and called for greater recognition and inclusion of Indigenous peoples in national identity and policy.
Indigenismo
Recognition of Indigenous culture as integral to national identity
Infrastructure
The fundamental physical and organizational structures, such as transportation, communication, and energy systems, needed for a society’s economy to function effectively.
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)
Federal agency created in 1932 to provide emergency loans to financial institutions; symbolized Hoover’s shift toward limited government intervention.
Smoot–Hawley Tariff (1930)
U.S. law that raised import duties on over 20,000 goods, triggering retaliatory tariffs and deepening the global depression.
Social security
Financial assistance provided to citizens to ensure basic well-being.
Social Security Act (1935)
Cornerstone of the U.S. welfare system; provided retirement and unemployment benefits, redefining the federal role in social protection.
The New Deal
Series of programs launched by Roosevelt to provide relief, recovery, and reform in response to the Great Depression, expanding federal authority and social welfare.
The Works Progress Administration (WPA)
The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was a U.S. government program created in 1935 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal to provide public employment during the Great Depression
Urbanization
Urbanization is the movement of populations from rural to urban areas.