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Autonomy
Ability of regions or communities to manage their own affairs.
Bourbon Reforms
A series of 18th-century administrative and economic reforms introduced by Spain’s Bourbon monarchs to tighten imperial control, increase tax revenue, and modernize colonial administration. These reforms angered Creoles and Indigenous peoples, fueling social unrest and later independence movements.
Creoles
American-born descendants of Europeans who sought political and economic independence but often resisted radical social change.
Joint-Stock Company
A business organization in which investors pooled money to fund colonial ventures in exchange for shared profits. This model reduced individual risk and allowed colonies like Jamestown (1607) to be established without direct royal funding.
Maroon Communities
Settlements formed by escaped enslaved Africans in the Americas and Caribbean. These communities, such as Palmares (Brazil) and the Maroons of Jamaica, resisted colonial authority and preserved African cultural traditions, often negotiating treaties to secure autonomy.
Mercantilism
An economic theory that emphasized accumulating wealth through colonies and trade monopolies. Colonies provided raw materials and markets for European manufactured goods.
Mercantilism
An economic policy dominant from the 16th to 18th centuries that viewed colonies as existing solely to enrich the mother country. Colonies supplied raw materials and served as exclusive markets for European goods. This policy aimed to ensure a favorable balance of trade and build national wealth and power, often at the expense of colonial freedom.
Mita System
A colonial labor draft based on an Inca practice of rotational communal work. Under Spanish rule, it became a coercive system forcing Indigenous men to work in mines like Potosí, often under brutal and deadly conditions.
Royal Governor
A Crown-appointed official who oversaw administration, enforced British trade laws, and maintained order in royal colonies. Though powerful in theory, royal governors often clashed with colonial assemblies over taxation, spending, and local autonomy.
Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
A global conflict between Britain and France that extended from Europe to North America, the Caribbean, and Asia. In North America it was known as the French and Indian War and decided which empire would dominate the continent.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
The peace treaty that ended the Seven Years’ War. France ceded Canada and all territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain, marking the end of French colonial power in mainland North America.
Tribute
Payment or acknowledgment of submission demanded by a stronger power.