Science uses systematic empirical methods and remains open to testing and revision. Pseudoscience presents itself as scientific without adequately following those methods, while non-science does not claim to be scientific and may pursue different kinds of knowledge.
The Demarcation Problem
The demarcation problem asks whether there is a reliable criterion separating science from pseudoscience and other forms of inquiry. This is difficult because scientific disciplines use diverse methods, and no single criterion captures every legitimate scientific practice.
Karl Popper proposed falsifiability: a theory is scientific if observations could, in principle, show it to be false. For example, the claim that all metals expand when heated is falsifiable because a metal that does not expand would count against it. By contrast, a claim continually reinterpreted so that every possible observation confirms it is not genuinely falsifiable.
However, falsifiability is not a complete solution. Scientists may reasonably retain a theory after an apparent falsification because the problem could lie in an auxiliary hypothesis, measurement, or experimental procedure. Thomas Kuhn also argued that normal science operates within a paradigm, where scientists solve problems without constantly rejecting foundational assumptions.
| Category | Main characteristics | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Science | Empirical investigation, testable claims, public methods, peer criticism, and revision in response to evidence | Evolutionary biology |
| Pseudoscience | Claims scientific authority but relies on selective evidence, vague predictions, or protection from refutation | Astrology presented as an experimentally verified predictive system |
| Non-science | Does not primarily make testable empirical claims or present itself as natural science | Ethics, mathematics, or literary criticism |
A common misconception is that non-science means false or worthless. Non-scientific disciplines can produce justified knowledge, but their claims are assessed through methods such as logical proof, conceptual analysis, or interpretation rather than empirical experimentation.
Exam Technique
In an IB Philosophy response, define all three categories, explain Popper's criterion, and evaluate its limitations. Avoid merely listing examples: justify why each example belongs in its category and conclude whether demarcation requires several criteria rather than one decisive test.
