Knowledge that is justified through experience.

Knowledge that is justified independently of experience.

Aesthetic experience refers to the unique, often intense, engagement with art, nature, or other objects that evoke a sense of beauty, wonder, or emotional response.

Aesthetic judgement refers to the evaluation of art and beauty. It involves assessing the qualities of an artwork, such as its form, content, and emotional impact.

Agency refers to the capacity of an individual to act intentionally and make choices.

Analytic statements are true by virtue of their meaning. They do not require empirical verification.

Arguments from illusion highlight how our senses can deceive us, casting doubt on the reliability of perception.

Asabiya (العصبية) refers to social cohesion or group solidarity, a central concept in Ibn Khaldun's analysis of the rise and fall of civilizations.

Authenticity is the existentialist ideal of living in accordance with one's true self and values, rather than conforming to external pressures or societal norms.

Authoritarianism and totalitarianism are systems where power is concentrated in a single leader or party, with limited political freedoms.

The ability to make independent choices and govern oneself.

Beauty is often seen as a quality that evokes pleasure or admiration. However, philosophers have debated whether beauty is objective (inherent in the object) or subjective (dependent on the observer's perception).

A school of thought that focuses on observable behavior (comportamiento observable) and environmental influences (influencias ambientales).

God's perfect goodness and moral integrity.

Big Science refers to large-scale scientific projects that require significant resources, collaboration, and infrastructure.

A universal moral law that applies to all rational beings.

Causality is the relationship between cause and effect, where one event (the cause) brings about another event (the effect).

Censorship involves the suppression or restriction of information, ideas, or expressions deemed harmful, sensitive, or undesirable.

Civil society refers to the network of organizations, institutions, and relationships that exist outside the state and the market.

Civil society refers to the network of organizations, associations, and institutions that exist independently of the state and government.

Long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns.

The view that moral statements express beliefs and can be true or false.

Coherentism rejects the idea of basic beliefs and instead argues that a belief is justified if it coheres with a system of interconnected beliefs.

Compatibilism is the view that free will and determinism can coexist.

Consciousness is the subjective experience of awareness and perception.

Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think about one's own existence, thoughts, and surroundings.

Values intrinsic to the practice of science, such as accuracy, consistency, and empirical adequacy.

Values external to science, including social, cultural, ethical, and political considerations.

A posteriori argument that seeks to prove God's existence by observing the universe and its causes.

The freedom artists have to interpret, alter, or invent elements in their work.

Culture is a complex system of beliefs, values, practices, and symbols shared by a group of people.

Deontological theories focus on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions, independent of their consequences.

The exhaustion of natural resources due to overconsumption and unsustainable practices.

Determinism is the philosophical view that every event is caused by preceding events and conditions, leaving no room for chance or free will.

Distributive justice refers to the fair allocation of resources, opportunities, and responsibilities within a society.

Dualism posits that the mind and body are separate, distinct entities.

The view that moral statements express emotions and are not truth-apt.

Argues that knowledge comes from sensory experience.

The study of knowledge, focusing on its nature, sources, and limits.

Existential angst is a profound sense of anxiety or dread arising from the realization of our radical freedom and the responsibility it entails.

Extrinsic value is the worth something has because of its utility, function, or relationship to other things. It is valuable as a means to an end.

Foundationalism is a theory of justification that addresses the regress problem by positing that some beliefs are self-justified or require no further support.

Freedom of information is the right to access, share, and receive information without unjustified interference.

The government is the set of institutions and individuals that make and enforce laws within a state.

Idealism posits that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual, existing only in the mind.

Incompatibilism holds that free will and determinism are fundamentally incompatible.

Induction is a method of reasoning that involves deriving general principles from specific observations. It is a cornerstone of scientific inquiry, allowing scientists to formulate hypotheses and theories based on empirical data.

Inter-subjectivity refers to the shared understanding and mutual recognition between individuals.

Intersectionality is a framework that examines how different forms of oppression (e.g., racism, sexism, homophobia) intersect and compound each other.

Intrinsic value refers to the inherent worth of something, independent of its utility or function. It is valuable in itself.

The belief that moral truths are self-evident and can be known through intuition.

Justification refers to the reasons or evidence that support a belief, making it rational or reasonable to hold.

The law of cause and effect governing moral actions.

A language game is a context or activity in which language is used according to specific rules.

Legitimacy refers to the acceptance and justification of a government's authority by its citizens and the international community.

Liberty refers to the freedom to act, think, or speak without unnecessary constraints.

Marginalization refers to the systematic exclusion or disadvantage of certain groups within a society.

The mind-body problem is a central question in philosophy that explores the relationship between the mind (our thoughts, feelings, and consciousness) and the body (our physical form).

The minimal self refers to the immediate, pre-reflective experience of being a subject.

Monarchy is a system where a single ruler, often a king or queen, holds power, typically inherited through a family line.

Belief in a single, all-powerful God.

Moral principles are guidelines or rules that inform our judgments about what is right or wrong.

Moral responsibility refers to the obligation to act ethically and the accountability for one's actions.

Moral values are the principles or standards that guide our judgments about what is right or wrong, good or bad.

Multi-party democracy is a system where multiple political parties compete for power, allowing for a diverse range of political perspectives.

A muse is often seen as a source of inspiration for artists, guiding their creative process.

A nation is a group of people who share a common identity, often based on language, culture, history, or ethnicity.

The view that moral properties are reducible to natural properties (e.g., pleasure, pain).

Negative liberty is the absence of external constraints or interference. It emphasizes the freedom to act without obstacles imposed by others, particularly the state.

The view that moral statements express emotions or commands and are not truth-apt.

The view that moral properties are irreducible and distinct from natural properties.

Norms are shared expectations or rules that guide behavior within a group or society.

A school of Hindu philosophy that emphasizes logic and epistemology.

Moral values are independent of individual opinions and have objective validity.

Objectivism asserts that perception provides access to an independent, objective reality.

Oligarchy is a form of government where power is concentrated in the hands of a small, elite group.

God's ability to do anything that is logically possible.

Questions whether an omnipotent being can perform logically impossible actions.

God's ability to know everything — past, present, and future.

One-party democracy is a system where a single political party dominates the political landscape, often claiming to represent the people's will.

A priori argument that attempts to prove God's existence through reason alone, without relying on empirical evidence.

Belief that God is identical to the universe and everything in it.

Perception is the process of acquiring knowledge through the senses. It is the foundation of empiricism, a philosophical view that all knowledge originates from sensory experience.

Personal identity refers to the qualities and characteristics that make an individual unique and distinct from others.

Personhood is often linked to agency, as being a person typically implies having the capacity to act intentionally and make choices.

Perspectivism argues that all knowledge and perception are shaped by specific perspectives, influenced by cultural, historical, and personal factors.

Phenomenalism holds that objects are merely collections of sensory experiences or phenomena.

The introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment.

Belief in multiple gods, each with distinct roles and attributes.

Positive liberty is the presence of conditions that enable individuals to achieve their potential. It focuses on the capacity to act in ways that are truly self-determined.

Positivism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes empirical observation and logical analysis as the basis of knowledge. It rejects metaphysics and focuses on observable phenomena.

Post-positivism emerged as a response to the limitations of positivism. It acknowledges the fallibility of scientific knowledge and the role of theoretical frameworks.

Pseudo-problems are questions that cannot be answered because they are based on linguistic confusion.

Emphasizes reason as the primary source of knowledge.

Realism is the belief that the world exists independently of our perceptions or beliefs.

Reason is the ability to think logically and draw conclusions from premises. It is central to rationalism, which holds that some knowledge is innate or a priori (independent of experience).

Reduction involves explaining complex phenomena in terms of simpler, more fundamental components. It is a common approach in the natural sciences.

Reductive explanations attempt to explain complex phenomena by breaking them down into simpler components.

Moral values are relative to cultural or societal norms.

Religious experience refers to subjective encounters with the divine or transcendent. These experiences often involve a sense of connection with a higher power, ultimate reality, or spiritual truth.

Religious language refers to the words and phrases used to describe, explain, or express beliefs about the divine, sacred, or transcendent.

Religious pluralism is the view that multiple religions can offer valid paths to truth or salvation. It contrasts with exclusivism (only one true religion) and inclusivism (one true religion, but others have partial truth).

Retributive justice focuses on the fair and proportional response to wrongdoing. It is closely related to the concept of punishment, which serves various purposes in society.

Scepticism is a philosophical approach that questions the possibility of certain knowledge. It challenges our assumptions about what we can know and how we can know it.

Scientific anti-realism challenges the notion that theories describe reality. Instead, it views them as useful tools for organizing observations.

Scientific realism is the view thatscientific theories describe the world as it truly is, including unobservable entities like electrons or black holes.

Scientific realism is the view that scientific theories describe the world as it truly is, including unobservable entities like electrons or black holes.

Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as a distinct, thinking being.

Self-knowledge refers to an individual's understanding of their own thoughts, feelings, and beliefs.

Social conditioning refers to the process by which individuals are shaped by societal norms, values, and expectations.

Social discontent arises when individuals or groups perceive injustices or inequities within a society.

Social institutions are organized systems of norms, values, and practices that shape and regulate human behavior within a society. They provide stability, continuity, and a framework for social interaction.

Social structures are the patterns and systems that organize human relationships and interactions.

Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is certain to exist. It raises profound questions about the nature of reality and our ability to know anything beyond our own consciousness.

The permanent loss of species from the planet.

A state is a political entity with a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.

The state of nature is a hypothetical condition used by philosophers to describe human existence before the formation of organized societies or governments.

Structural violence refers to systemic and institutionalized forms of harm that disproportionately affect marginalized communities.

Subjectivism holds that perception is inherently tied to the individual's mind, shaped by personal experiences, emotions, and interpretations.

Moral values are seen as individual preferences or emotions.

Synthetic statements are true or false based on empirical evidence. They add new information about the world.

Taste refers to the ability to judge and appreciate beauty. It involves both emotional and intellectual responses to art.

The teleological argument (or design argument) posits that the order and complexity of the universe imply the existence of an intelligent designer.

Teleological explanations focus on the purpose or end goal of a phenomenon.

Teleological theories assess the morality of actions based on their consequences or goals.

Testimony is the acquisition of knowledge through the reports or statements of others.

The Body Theory posits that personal identity is based on the continuity of the physical body.

The Bundle Theory, associated with David Hume, argues that personal identity is a collection of perceptions and experiences, without a unifying self.

The narrative self is the constructed identity that emerges from stories we tell about our lives.

The Psychological Continuity Theory argues that personal identity is based on the continuity of psychological states, such as memories, beliefs, and consciousness.

The Soul Theory posits that personal identity is based on the continuity of an immaterial soul.

Theocracy is a system where religious leaders or institutions govern, often based on religious law.

God exists outside of time, unbound by past, present, or future.

Tolerance is the willingness to allow beliefs, practices, or behaviors that one disagrees with or finds objectionable. It is often seen as a virtue in pluralistic societies, promoting peaceful coexistence among diverse groups.

Tribalism refers to governance based on tribal or ethnic affiliations, often seen in societies where traditional structures remain influential.

Coherence among a set of beliefs or propositions.

Correspondence between statements and reality.

Truth is what works or has practical utility in a given context.

Unification in science refers to the process of combining different theories or explanations into a single, coherent framework. It is often seen as a mark of scientific progress.

Some moral values are universal and apply to all humans, regardless of culture.

A consequentialist theory that prioritizes maximizing happiness or well-being for the majority.

Verificationism is the view that a statement is meaningful only if it can be empirically verified or is analytically true.

Virtue ethics is a moral philosophy that emphasizes the character of the moral agent rather than specific actions or consequences. It asks, "What kind of person should I be?" rather than "What should I do?"