Ethics is not exclusively about either self-interest or the interests of others. Different theories of normative ethics disagree about whose interests matter, although most major theories require moral agents to consider others rather than simply pursue personal advantage.
Ethical egoism claims that an action is morally right when it promotes the agent’s long-term self-interest. This does not necessarily mean acting selfishly in every situation: cooperation, honesty, and helping others may benefit the agent by creating trust or reciprocal support. However, critics argue that ethical egoism cannot impartially resolve conflicts between individuals’ interests.
Other ethical theories give greater moral importance to other people:
| Ethical theory | Whose interests matter? | Basis of moral judgment |
|---|---|---|
| Ethical egoism | Primarily the agent’s | Whether an action advances the agent’s long-term interests |
| Utilitarianism | Everyone affected | Whether an action maximizes overall happiness or well-being |
| Kantian ethics | Every rational person | Whether the maxim can be universalized and respects humanity as an end |
| Virtue ethics | The agent and the community | Whether the action expresses virtues and contributes to human flourishing |
Utilitarianism is impartial: the agent’s welfare matters, but it counts no more than anyone else’s comparable welfare. Kantian ethics requires respect for persons and prohibits treating others merely as means, even when doing so would benefit the agent.
Virtue ethics complicates the contrast. Aristotle’s idea of eudaimonia, or human flourishing, concerns the agent’s good, but flourishing requires virtues such as justice, generosity, and friendship. Personal well-being and concern for others can therefore be interdependent.
A common misconception is that any concern for self-interest is unethical. Ethical theories usually distinguish legitimate self-concern from selfishness that ignores or exploits others.
For an IB Philosophy response, use the command term evaluate by presenting competing theories, testing their assumptions, and reaching a justified conclusion. Avoid merely listing theories: directly compare how each resolves conflicts between the agent’s welfare and the welfare or rights of others.
