A company which operates in at least two countries.

When wind-borne particles, such as sand, strike rock surfaces, wearing them down over time.

When rocks embedded in the glacier's base scrape against the bedrock, acting like sandpaper.

Accessibility refers to how easily people can reach and use a facility.

Adventure tourism offers activities like safaris and glacier treks.

Adventure tourism focuses on physically challenging activities that push boundaries and offer unforgettable experiences.

Affluence refers to the availability of wealth and resources, enabling individuals to access a wider range of leisure activities.

Fan-shaped deposits of sediment found at the base of slopes, formed by flash floods.

Government strategies designed to reduce birth rates and, consequently, reduce and control population growth.

A ranking that evaluates cities worldwide based on their global influence and connectivity.

The atmosphere is an open energy system that receives solar radiation (insolation) from the Sun.

Below replacement level fertility rate refers to a situation where the average number of children born per woman is less than 2.1, which is the number needed to replace the existing population without considering mortality rates.

Collection of ecosystems with its habitats characterized by similar climatic conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, vegetation types, and animal communities.

A brownfield site is a parcel of land previously used for industrial or commercial purposes that may be contaminated by hazardous substances, pollutants, or waste. These sites are often underutilized or abandoned and require environmental remediation before they can be redeveloped or repurposed. Reclaiming brownfield sites is a key component of urban development.

Smaller, isolated versions of mesas, often described as mesas in miniature.

Number of deaths of children under 5 years per 1,000 live births.

CSOs, including NGOs and advocacy groups, work to promote sustainable development and protect vulnerable communities.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to the ethical and sustainable practices adopted by businesses to address social and environmental challenges.

The movement of people from large urban areas to smaller towns or rural regions.

Cultural diffusion is the process through which cultural traits, such as beliefs, norms, practices, ideas, technologies, and items are spread from one place, society or group to another.

Imposing values, beliefs, practices, and products of a dominant culture on other cultures, often leading to the diminishment or erosion of local cultures.

A system of shared meanings and values used by people who belong to the same community, group or nation to help them interpret and make sense of the world

When wind removes fine, loose particles from the surface, leaving behind larger, heavier materials.

Clearing forests for agriculture or urban development removes tree roots that stabilize the soil, increasing erosion and nutrient loss, as well as decreasing water retention capacity.

Deindustrialization is the long-term decline in employment in the manufacturing sector of an economy. It involves a loss of jobs rather than a decline in productivity.

The demographic dividend is an accelerated economic growth that results from a specific shift in demographic structure caused by rapid decline in fertility. It occurs when past high fertility rates had resulted in a larger working-age population, while recent and fast decline in fertility reduced the number of young dependents.

The dependency ratio measures the proportion of dependents (people aged below 15 and above 65) to the working-age (economically active) population (15–64).

Older dependency ratio measures the proportion of old dependents (people aged above 65) to the working-age (economically active) population (15–64).

Desert landscapes are sculpted by a combination of weathering, erosion, and transportation processes.

The expansion of desert-like conditions into previously fertile areas.

Groups of people who have settled far from their ancestral homelands but maintain strong their identity and cultural ties to their origins.

Diaspora tourism involves individuals traveling to their ancestral homelands.

Diffusion refers to the process by which cultural practices, ideas, technologies, and innovations spread from one location to another over time. This can occur through various mechanisms, such as trade, migration, and communication, leading to the adoption and adaptation of these elements in new areas.

The disease spreads outward from a central area.

Displacement refers to the forced movement of people caused by factors such as natural disasters, famine, diseases, or conflict.

Drainage Basin is an area of land drained by river and its tributaries. It includes water found on the surface, in the soil and in near-surface geology.

A drought is a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall relative to the multi-annual average for a specific region, resulting in a significant water shortage. It can lead to a depletion of soil moisture, reduced water supply in rivers and reservoirs, and adverse impacts on agriculture, ecosystems, and human activities.

Mounds of sand shaped by wind patterns, varying in size and shape depending on wind direction, sand supply, and vegetation.

Earthquake is a sudden releases of energy in the Earth’s crust, causing ground shaking.

Eco-tourism focuses on sustainable travel to natural areas.

An ecological footprint measures the environmental impact of human activities, expressed as the amount of land and water needed to produce resources and absorb waste.

The ecological footprint is a theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population (or an individual) requires to fulfill all resource needs and to absorb its waste, under prevailing technology. It is measured in global hectares (gha).

The energy balance refers to the equilibrium between the incoming solar energy absorbed by the Earth and the outgoing energy re-radiated back into space.

Energy efficiency measures the ratio of energy inputs (e.g., fuel, labor) to caloric outputs (food produced).

The enhanced greenhouse effect is caused by human-induced increases in greenhouse gases, leading to global warming and currently observed climate change.

Groups that work to protect ecosystems and promote sustainable resource use.

The epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.

The epidemiological transition is a model that describes the shift in disease patterns as societies develop economically. It explains changes in a country's health profile - a shift from infectious or contagious communicable diseases to non-communicable diseases.

Epidemiology is the study of how diseases spread, evolve, and affect populations.

Eustatic changes refer to worldwide shifts in sea level caused by changes in the volume of water in the oceans or alterations in the size of the ocean basins.

Evapotranspiration is the total output of water from the drainage basin directly back into the atmosphere.

Expansion diffusion occurs when a disease spreads from a central point, affecting nearby areas.

Areas where harsh climatic conditions make survival and development challenging for humans, plants, and animals.

Fairtrade is a certification system that ensures producers receive fair wages and work under ethical conditions.

Fjordd is a narrow, and lengthened steep-sided marine gulf, which results from flooding by the sea an U-shaped valley carved by a glacier previously.

The focus is the point within the Earth where an earthquake originates.

A food crisis is a situation where large populations face acute food shortages, leading to malnutrition, starvation, and death.

The involuntary movement of people due to factors such as conflict, natural disasters, or persecution.

Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) refers to investments made by a company or individual in one country into business interests located in another country.

Frequency refers to how often a hazard occurs.

Frequency describes how often a hazard occurs.

The Gender Development Index (GDI) compares HDI calculated separately for females and males.

The Gender Inequality Index (GII) is a measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to assess gender disparities in a country.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are plants or animals whose DNA has been altered to introduce specific traits, such as pest resistance or improved nutritional content.

Global dimming is the gradual decrease in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface due to an increase in atmospheric pollutants arriving from natural phenomena (volcanic eruptions) and human activities.

Multidimensional, complex set of processes in which communities (as well as societies) and places (as well as entire countries) may adopt, adapt or resist goods, services and cultural traits from other communities and places.

Global population distribution refers to the pattern of where people live.

A multifaceted process, involving economic, political, social, and cultural integration leading to increasing interdependence of places.

Governance refers to how decisions are made and implemented by governments and institutions.

The use of military or economic force to achieve goals.

A hazard profile describes the characteristics of a natural hazard, such as its magnitude, frequency, duration, and secondary hazards.

Heritage tourism focuses on cultural and historical attractions, often linked to UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

High-order goods are expensive items purchased infrequently, such as cars, electronics or designer clothing.

The Human Development Index (HDI) is an official indicator published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and a widely used tool to assess a country's overall development.

In vitro meat, or cultured meat, is grown from animal cells in a lab, eliminating the need for livestock farming.

Informal Economy include variety of economic activities outside official regulations, providing livelihoods for many urban residents.

Informal housing refers to unregulated and often unsafe living conditions, commonly found in slums or squatter settlements.

An informal settlement is a densely populated area where people live in makeshift housing without legal rights to the land

Inputs are the resources and energy needed to produce food.

The energy received from the Sun mostly in the form of short-wave radiation. However, the Sun emits entire spectrum of electromagnetic waves.

Integrated Drainage Basin Management (IDBM) - a comprehensive approach to managing the water resources in a drainage basin. It is a strategy that views a river basin as a single, interconnected system, balancing the needs of people, economies, and ecosystems.

1. The artificial application of water to the soil to assist in the growth of crops.
2. A lifeline for agriculture in arid regions, enabling crop cultivation where rainfall is insufficient.

Isostatic changes involve vertical movements of the Earth's crust relative to the sea.

A measure of the degree of globalization of countries based on economic, social, and political dimensions.

A process that threatens ecosystems, food security, and livelihoods worldwide. Land degradation is the decline in the quality and productivity of land due to natural and human-induced factors.

Land use zoning is a strategy where governments designate specific areas for certain activities and functions based on risk assessments, as well as on the analysis of local communities needs and overall development strategy.

Leisure – any freely chosen activity or experience that takes place in non-work time. It includes non-professional sport, recreation and tourism.

Lithology refers to the composition and structure of rocks along the coastline, which influences erosion and landform development.

Littoral drift, or longshore drift, is the movement of sediment along the coast by waves.

Long-wave radiation refers to the energy re-emitted (re-radiated) by the Earth in a form of infrared (heat) after initial absorption of the short-wave solar radiation (mostly in the form of ultraviolet and visible light).

Low-order goods are necessity goods or convenience goods bought frequently, such as bread and hygiene items.

Magnitude refers to the size or intensity of a hazard.

Magnitude quantifies the energy released during a natural event. It refers to the size or intensity of a hazard.

Mass movements refer to the downslope movement of soil, rock, or debris under the influence of gravity.

A megacity is an urban area with a population exceeding 10 million. Megacities are a prominent feature of rapid urbanization in many MICs and some LICs.

Large, flat-topped landforms with steep sides, formed by the erosion of softer rock layers beneath a harder caprock.

Microfinance refers to financial services, including small loans, savings accounts, insurance, and financial training, provided to individuals and small businesses who lack access to traditional banking.

Migration is the movement of people from place of origin to place of destination that involves changing place of residence.

Migration can be domestic or international, voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, permanent or temporary.

Other forms of spatial mobility include commuting (regular travel of individuals between their home and place of work or study) and tourism (traveling to places different from one's usual environment for leisure and recreation).

Movie location tourism draws visitors to sites made famous by films or TV shows.

The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is a measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) to assess poverty beyond income-based measures.

Organizations independent of government involvement, often focused on addressing social, environmental, or humanitarian issues. NGOs address matters of public concern not for profit in the sphere between households (individuals), public administration (governments), and business entities (companies). They are also known as Civil Society Organizations.

Relocating business operations to another country to reduce costs.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is a group of 38 countries committed to promoting economic growth, trade, and sustainable development.

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of oil-producing nations that coordinate oil production to influence global prices.

Outputs are the results of the food production process.

Contracting specific tasks or services to external companies.

Destinations where there are too many visitors, and that the quality of life in the area, or the quality of the experience has deteriorated unacceptably

Over-tourism occurs when the number of visitors exceeds a destinations carrying capacity to manage them sustainably, leading to negative impacts on the environment, local communities, and the tourism experience itself.

There are three main types of carrying capacity:

• Physical Carrying Capacity: The measure of absolute space, for example the number of spaces within a car park, number of hotel rooms
• Environmental Carrying Capacity: The level of use that an environment can sustain before long-term environmental damage occurs
• Perceptual Carrying Capacity: The level of crowding that a tourist (or local community) tolerates before deciding the location is too full
  

When livestock graze excessively on vegetation, the soil becomes exposed and vulnerable to erosion.

Ground that remains frozen for two or more consecutive years.

Ice-cored hills that can reach up to 100 meters in height and 1,000 meters in width.

The process where glaciers remove rocks from the ground.

Population momentum refers to the continued population growth despite falling fertility rates below replacement rate (2.1).

Policies designed to encourage population growth by offering incentives for having more children.

Processes are the activities that convert inputs into outputs.

Range refers to the maximum distance that people are willing to travel to access a facility or service.

Re-urbanization is the process in which people move back to urban areas that have previously experienced decline or depopulation, often leading to revitalization through demographic shifts, infrastructure improvements, and increased economic activity.

This process is often associated with gentrification, where an influx of wealthier residents leads to the renovation and upgrading of neighborhoods.

Reach describes the distance or area from which a facility draws its visitors. An area is also referred to as Sphere of Influence.

Recurrence interval (or return period) estimates the average time between events of a specific magnitude.

Funds sent by individuals, typically migrants or expatriates, to their families or communities in their home country.

Resilience is the ability of a system, community, or individual to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from adverse events or disturbances, such as natural disasters, economic shocks, or environmental changes, while maintaining essential functions and structures.

It is the ability to absorb externally imposed or internally developed major change without fundamental disruptions to how a system operates.

When tectonic plates move away from each other, creating rift valleys and volcanic activity.

River discharge is the volume of water passing a specific point in a river per unit of time, usually measured in cubic meters per second (cumecs).

This is the movement of people from rural areas to cities.

The build up of water-soluble salts in the soil.

The buildup of salts in soil, often caused by excessive irrigation or poor drainage.

Sediment is the raw material (small, solid particles consisting of various materials, including rock fragments, minerals, organic matter, and shells) transported and deposited by water, wind, ice, or gravity.

In case of coastal processes, sediment is mostly transported by water and wind and serves as building material for beaches, dunes, and other coastal landform.

When a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or when the individual is under 18.

The site of a city refers to the specific physical location and characteristics of a place, including its geographic features that influence its location and development.

Situation refers to the location of a place relative to other areas and the broader context and relationships that influence its development.

A smart city is a city that uses information and communication technology (ICT) and real-time feedback based on data to improve the quality of life for its residents, enhance urban services, and promote sustainability.

The Social Progress Index (SPI) is a tool for assessing a country's well being beyond economic indicators.

The ability to influence others through attraction and persuasion rather than force.

Sphere of influence refers to the area from which a facility, an attraction or a tourist destination draws its support.

Regions where an oceanic plate sinks beneath a continental plate.

Suburbanization is the process by which populations move from urban centers to the outskirts of a city. It is the outward expansion of cities into surrounding areas, creating residential suburbs. This phenomenon often occurs as individuals and families seek more space, affordable housing, and a perceived higher quality of life.

Superpowers are able to influence policy on a regional (Regional Superpower) or worldwide (Global Superpower) scale and their impact reaches beyond their own territory.

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 17 interconnected goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015.

Sustainable tourism is a form of travel that minimizes negative impacts on the environment and local cultures while maximizing economic benefits for host communities.

A self-reinforcing process where poverty leads to poor education, limited job opportunities, and social exclusion, perpetuating low-income conditions across generations.

The Urban Heat Island Effect (UHIE) describes the phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than their rural surroundings due to human activities and the characteristics of built environment.

The irregular, depressed surfaces formed by the melting of permafrost.

Tides are very long-period waves that move through the ocean in response to the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and sun.

The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her reproductive years (ages 15–49), also called childbearing age.

The TFR of 2.1 is called a replacement rate - rate that allows to maintain the same population size over time.

Tourism is the movement of people to a new place for pleasure involving at least one overnight stay outside of the usual place of residence.

Transnational corporation (TNC) or multinational enterprise (MNE) is a business organization with operations in a number of countries.

The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere, extending from the surface up to about 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles) in altitude, depending on the latitude. It contains around 75% of the atmosphere's mass.

Urban poverty refers to the lack of abilities to meet basic needs and limited opportunities in cities, often concentrated in specific areas.

Urban sprawl is the unplanned and uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural land, typically characterized by low-density development and single-use zoning. Urban sprawl can create challenges such as traffic congestion, inefficient public services, and loss of agricultural land and natural habitats.

Urbanization is the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas.

Urbanization refers to the increasing proportion of people living in cities, fueled primarily by migration (mostly domestic) and natural increase.

Diseases transmitted by living organisms, such as mosquitoes or ticks.

Vertical farming involves growing crops in stacked layers within controlled environments, often in urban areas.

A volcano is an opening in the Earth's crust through which molten rock (lava), ashes and gases trapped under the surface erupt, often forming a hill or mountain. Volcanoes form when magma from magma chambers within the Earth’s mantle reaches the surface.

Dry riverbeds found in arid regions, formed by the powerful erosive force of seasonal floods.

The water footprint measures the total water used in food production, including irrigation, processing, and packaging.

Diseases transmitted through contaminated water.

The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles. In deserts, two main types of weathering occur: physical and chemical.