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Philosophy

5.2 Religious language

What Is Wittgenstein's Idea of Religion as a “Language Game”?

Learn how Wittgenstein's language-game theory explains religious meaning through use, rules, practices, and forms of life for IB Philosophy exams.

5.3 Religious experience and behaviour

What Is John Hick's Concept of Religious Pluralism (“the Real”)?

Understand John Hick’s concept of the Real, his pluralistic hypothesis, Kantian distinction, religious experience, key criticisms, and exam use.

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6.3 Science and society

What's the Difference Between Constitutive Values and Contextual Values in Science (Helen Longino)?

Learn how Helen Longino distinguishes constitutive from contextual values in science, and why both matter in IB Philosophy exam responses.

What Are Social Contract Theories of the State of Nature?

Compare Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau on the state of nature, social contracts, political authority, and legitimate government for IB Philosophy exams.

6.3 Science and society

What Are the Ethics of Military Research and “Big Science” (Human Genome Project; Large Hadron Collider)?

Examine military research, the Human Genome Project and Large Hadron Collider through consequences, duties, justice, consent and scientific responsibility.

What's the Difference Between a State, a Nation, a Government, and Civil Society?

Learn how IB Philosophy distinguishes the state, nation, government, and civil society through sovereignty, identity, authority, and voluntary association.

What Obligations Does the State Have to the Individual, and Vice Versa?

Explore reciprocal state and individual obligations through social contract theory, rights, political authority, and focused IB Philosophy exam analysis.

6.3 Science and society

What Ethical Responsibilities Do Scientists Have to Society?

Explore scientists’ ethical duties to society, including honesty, public safety, justice, transparency, and responsibility for scientific applications.

What Makes a Government Legitimate?

Learn what makes a government legitimate through consent, justice, public benefit and fair procedures, with clear guidance for IB Philosophy exams.

What's the Difference Between Democracy, Oligarchy, Monarchy, and Totalitarianism as Forms of Government?

Compare democracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and totalitarianism through political authority, legitimacy, participation, and state control in IB Philosophy.

What Is John Rawls's Theory of Justice as Fairness?

Learn Rawls's justice as fairness: the original position, veil of ignorance, two principles, difference principle, and key IB exam applications.

What's the Difference Between Liberalism, Conservatism, Marxism, and Socialism as Political Ideologies?

Compare liberalism, conservatism, Marxism, and socialism through their views of freedom, equality, property, human nature, and the state’s role.

What's the Difference Between Distributive and Retributive Justice?

Learn how distributive justice allocates social benefits and burdens, while retributive justice determines proportionate punishment for wrongdoing.

Is Justice an Idea; an Ideal; or a Process?

Explore whether justice is an idea, an ideal, or a process through philosophical distinctions, clear examples, and focused IB exam guidance.

Is There an Objective Standard for Justice?

Explore whether justice has an objective standard through utilitarianism, Rawls, Nozick, relativism, and exam-ready philosophical evaluation.

What Did Friedrich Hayek Mean Calling Social Justice “An Empty Phrase”?

Learn why Friedrich Hayek called social justice an empty phrase, how spontaneous order supports his argument, and how to evaluate it in IB Philosophy.

What's the Relationship Between Justice, Freedom, and Equality?

Explore how justice relates to freedom and equality in IB Philosophy, including key tensions, Rawls's principles, and effective exam evaluation.

7.3 Liberty and rights

What's the Difference Between Legal Rights and Moral Rights?

Understand how legal rights differ from moral rights in source, enforcement and scope, with examples and exam guidance for IB Philosophy on liberty and rights.

7.3 Liberty and rights

Are Human Rights Inalienable and Universal?

Examine whether human rights are universal and inalienable through natural-rights theory, cultural relativism, legal limits, and IB exam guidance.

8.1 Social structures and institutions

What's the Difference Between Formal and Informal Social Structures?

Learn how formal and informal social structures differ in rules, authority, enforcement, and examples, with guidance for IB Philosophy exam responses.

7.3 Liberty and rights

What Did John Stuart Mill Say About Harm, Offence, and Free Speech?

Learn how Mill’s harm principle distinguishes harm from offence and supports free speech, with key arguments and exam guidance for IB Philosophy.

7.3 Liberty and rights

Do Animals or Non-Living Things Have Rights?

Examine whether animals, ecosystems, or objects can have moral or legal rights using interest theory, will theory, moral status, and clear IB analysis.

7.3 Liberty and rights

Should There Be Limits on Freedom of Information and Censorship?

Examine whether freedom of information and censorship should be limited through Mill’s harm principle, rights conflicts, autonomy, and proportionality.

8.1 Social structures and institutions

How Should Society Be Organized?

Learn how IB Philosophy evaluates social organization through justice, liberty, equality, authority, institutions, and competing political models for exams.

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