The doughnut economics model is a sustainability framework that aims to meet everyone’s essential social needs without exceeding Earth’s ecological limits. It defines a safe and just space for humanity between a social foundation and an ecological ceiling.
This is core content for SL and HL in IB ESS Subtopic 1.3, Sustainability.
How the model works
Associated with economist Kate Raworth, the model represents sustainability using two boundaries:
| Part of the model | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Social foundation | The minimum standard needed for human well-being, including food, water, health, education, housing, political voice, equity and energy. Falling inside this boundary indicates social deprivation. |
| Ecological ceiling | The maximum environmental pressure Earth systems can tolerate without an increasing risk of severe change. It is informed by the planetary boundaries model. |
| Doughnut-shaped space | The area between the two boundaries, where social needs are met without causing unacceptable ecological degradation. |
The model therefore combines the three pillars of sustainability: environmental, social and economic. Its goal is not unlimited GDP growth, but an economy that is regenerative, restoring natural systems, and distributive, sharing resources and opportunities more equitably.
For example, Amsterdam began using a city-level doughnut approach in 2020. Policies can be assessed according to whether they support residents’ needs while reducing pressures such as greenhouse gas emissions, resource consumption and biodiversity loss.
A common misconception is that the doughnut is simply a diagram of environmental limits. It also includes environmental justice: a society is not sustainable if it remains within ecological limits while large groups lack food, clean water or other basic needs.
Exam technique
For a describe question, identify and outline both boundaries. For an evaluate question, explain that the model integrates social and ecological sustainability, but also recognize that it simplifies reality and that indicators, thresholds and priorities may differ between places. Use a named example and reach a supported conclusion.
