Environmental ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines moral principles concerning relationships between humans and the environment. It asks what humans ought to do, which entities deserve moral consideration, and whether nature has value beyond human usefulness.
This is HL-only content from subtopic HL.c Environmental ethics.
The Reasoning
Ethics studies what behaviours are right or wrong. Environmental ethics applies this reasoning to decisions involving organisms, species, ecosystems, resources, and future generations.
Instrumental value is an entity's usefulness to humans, such as a forest providing timber, carbon storage, or recreation. Intrinsic value is value attached to an entity simply for what it is, regardless of human benefit. The two can coexist.
Moral standing means an entity must be considered when deciding how humans should act towards it. Worldviews differ over whether this applies only to humans, to sentient animals, or also to species, ecosystems, and natural entities.
| Ethical approach | How it judges an action |
|---|---|
| Virtue ethics | Character, such as care and restraint |
| Consequentialist ethics | Overall benefits, harms, and consequences |
| Rights-based ethics | Whether rights of entities with moral standing are violated |
For example, commercial whaling may be opposed because whales have intrinsic value or rights. A consequentialist could instead weigh animal suffering and biodiversity loss against food security and Indigenous cultural needs. This demonstrates that environmental decisions combine ecological evidence, social perspectives, and environmental justice.
A common misconception is that environmental ethics simply means caring about nature. It is instead a structured analysis of values, duties, rights, character, and consequences.
Exam Technique
In an HL response, define the concept precisely and apply at least two ethical frameworks to a named issue. For discuss or evaluate, present conflicting perspectives and finish with a supported judgement; a one-sided response limits achievement.