For the 2020 syllabus, Paper 2 Topic 2: Causes and effects of wars (750-1500), conflict emerges when economic, political, social or environmental pressures create competing interests that rulers or groups cannot resolve peacefully. These factors usually interact rather than operating independently.
The central historical concept is causation. A strong explanation distinguishes long-term causes, which create underlying tension, from short-term causes and an immediate cause, which turn tension into war.
| Factor | Mechanism causing conflict | Typical medieval application |
|---|---|---|
| Economic | Competition over land, taxation, labour, trade routes or valuable resources gives states and groups material reasons to fight. Economic hardship can also weaken governments and increase discontent. | Rival rulers may seek control of prosperous territory or trade routes to increase revenue. |
| Political | Succession disputes, weak authority, dynastic rivalry and territorial ambition produce competing claims to power. Alliances can widen a local dispute. | The death of a ruler without an accepted successor may encourage rival claimants and foreign intervention. |
| Social | Inequality, ethnic divisions, class tensions or population movements can create grievances and strengthen group identities. Leaders may mobilize these grievances to gain support. | Heavy taxation or unequal obligations may encourage rebellion against political elites. |
| Environmental | Famine, disease, drought or pressure on land can intensify competition, migration and state weakness. Environmental pressure is normally an indirect cause rather than a complete explanation. | Crop failure may reduce tax revenue, increase unrest and make competition for productive land more severe. |
A common misconception is that one factor alone “causes” a war. More often, an environmental or economic crisis weakens a state, social grievances reduce loyalty, and a political dispute provides the immediate trigger.
In a Paper 2 essay, organize paragraphs by factors but make explicit links between them. For a command term such as evaluate or to what extent, rank their relative importance, support each claim with precise evidence from the wars studied, and reach a reasoned conclusion rather than simply listing causes.
