Seligman and Maier’s study can be discussed especially well through causality, measurement and responsibility, with bias also affecting how far the findings can be applied. Overall, the study is strong for showing a causal relationship between uncontrollability and later passivity, but this strength is balanced by impo

The claim that early experience shapes later development is supported by substantial research in developmental psychology, especially studies of attachment and deprivation. However, this claim should be discussed carefully because early experience does not act in a wholly deterministic way. Evidence suggests that early

The claim that cognitive abilities develop in a fixed sequence of stages is most strongly associated with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Piaget argued that children move through universal stages in an invariant order, with each stage involving a qualitative shift in thinking rather than simply knowing more.

This study can be discussed particularly well through causality, measurement and responsibility, because all three concepts affect what can legitimately be concluded from the children’s responses. Overall, the findings do suggest a developmental shift in conservation of number, since “most children younger than six” ju

The claim that the effects of early deprivation can be reversed by later positive experiences is supported to an extent, but the evidence suggests that reversal is often only partial. Research in human development shows substantial recovery when deprived children are later placed in stable, nurturing environments, yet

Tronick et al.’s still-face study can be discussed particularly well through the concepts of causality, measurement and responsibility, with bias also relevant when considering how far the findings can be generalised. Overall, the study is strong in showing that a breakdown in reciprocal interaction leads to infant dis

De Dreu and colleagues’ study can be discussed particularly effectively through causality, measurement and bias, with responsibility also relevant because of how easily the findings can be overstated. Overall, the study provides relatively strong evidence that intranasal oxytocin affected behaviour in this specific lab

Culture plays a significant role in the diagnosis of mental disorder because diagnosis is not simply the identification of biological symptoms; it also depends on how distress is expressed, interpreted and judged against social norms. Therefore, culture can influence both what symptoms are noticed and whether they are

The claim that human thinking is fundamentally biased has substantial support from research in the psychology of learning and cognition, especially from work on heuristics. A bias can be defined as a systematic deviation from rational judgement, and many studies show that people do not always process information logica

The claim that memory has identifiable neural correlates is broadly supported by research, because particular brain structures and biological processes are consistently associated with different kinds of memory. However, the claim should be discussed carefully. Evidence suggests that memory is linked to identifiable ne

Maguire et al. can be discussed effectively through causality, measurement and bias, because the study is often treated as strong evidence for neuroplasticity, yet the strength of that claim depends on how the data were produced and interpreted. Overall, the study gives persuasive support for an association between nav

The claim that cognitive biases systematically distort human memory is strongly supported by research, although it should not be taken to mean that memory is entirely inaccurate. In cognitive psychology, memory is generally understood as reconstructive rather than reproductive: people do not store a perfect copy of eve

The claim that cultural norms and values are passed on mainly through socialisation is persuasive because socialisation is the main process by which children learn what behaviours are approved, rewarded and expected in their culture. Through observation, direct instruction and reinforcement, children become enculturate

The claim that well-being is more than the absence of illness is persuasive because health psychology increasingly distinguishes between simply not meeting criteria for a disorder and actually functioning well. In other words, a person may have no diagnosable depression or anxiety, yet still feel empty, lack purpose, o

The claim that moral reasoning develops through an ordered sequence is most strongly associated with Kohlberg’s stage theory. This claim argues that people move through qualitatively different levels of reasoning in a fixed order, from simple obedience-based judgments to more abstract ethical principles. There is resea

The claim is convincing because human development is a complex process, and no single perspective can explain it fully. Biological, cognitive and sociocultural approaches each focus on different mechanisms of change. Biological explanations emphasise maturation and genetics, cognitive explanations focus on changes in t

The claim that the use of animals in cognitive research is ethically justified can be supported, but only under limited conditions. Animal studies have contributed significantly to the psychology of learning and cognition because they allow a high level of experimental control and can investigate processes that would b

The claim that memory is reconstructive rather than an accurate record is strongly supported in cognitive psychology. A reconstructive view means that remembering is not like replaying a video; instead, people actively rebuild a memory using fragments of the original event together with prior knowledge, expectations an

We can conclude to a moderate extent that cultural values shape child development, because several of the sources show consistent links between cultural orientation and important developmental outcomes such as academic behaviour, family responsibility and persistence. However, the evidence does not justify a fully dete

Caspi et al. (2002) is a useful study for discussing causality, measurement and responsibility because its findings are often simplified in ways that the actual design does not justify. The study followed a birth cohort over time, recorded whether boys had experienced childhood maltreatment, identified whether they had

The claim that culture shapes the formation of personal relationships is persuasive, because cultural norms influence what people look for in a partner, how much choice they have, and whether relationships are based mainly on individual preference or wider family and group goals. However, this claim should be discussed

Fisher, Aron and Brown’s study can be discussed effectively through the concepts of measurement, causality, bias and responsibility because the strengths of the research are closely tied to its limitations. Overall, the study provides useful evidence that intense romantic love is associated with activation in brain rew

Cross-cultural perspectives have made an important contribution to understanding child development because they challenge the assumption that developmental patterns found in one society are universal. By comparing children and caregivers across different cultural contexts, psychologists can identify which aspects of de

We can conclude only to a limited extent that the intervention improves outcomes for everyone. The strongest support for the claim comes from Source A, which states that “the mean outcome score improved after the intervention”. This suggests that, overall, the intervention had a positive effect at the group level. If t