The ability of individuals or institutions to adjust to potential damage, take advantage of opportunities, or respond to consequences, often through learning, planning, and access to resources.

The organized institutions, roles, procedures, and networks used by a state or empire to govern, manage resources, enforce laws, and coordinate activity across its territory.

A population in which the average age is rising and a large proportion of people are in older age groups, usually because of low birth rates and higher life expectancy.

Total demand for goods and services in an economy from households, firms, government, and foreign buyers.

The total amount of output firms are willing and able to produce at different price levels, given costs and productivity.

Outdoor air pollution caused by substances such as particulate matter and gases released from activities like transport, industry, and power generation.

A Roman imperial system for securing and transporting grain to supply the city of Rome, involving state coordination and contracts with merchants.

A government policy designed to reduce birth rates (for example, through access to contraception, later marriage, or limits on family size).

Technology designed to match the local context, including affordability, available skills, maintenance needs, and existing infrastructure.

A person who has left their home country and is seeking legal protection (asylum) in another country.

The number of live births per 1000 people per year.

An economic system in which individuals or firms own capital and employ labour to produce goods and services for sale, with investment and profit playing central roles.

A method of organizing an economy in which a central authority sets production goals and coordinates the allocation of resources.

A system that sets environmental standards for a product or industry and verifies compliance, often allowing producers to use an eco-label to signal sustainability to consumers.

A sustained armed conflict within one political entity, in which organized groups compete for control of the state, territory, or the rules of government.

A sustained, large-scale armed conflict between organized groups within the same state or political unit, competing for control of government, territory, or political order.

An economic system where key production and allocation decisions are mainly made by the government through planning and direction.

Large and unpredictable changes in the price of primary goods (such as oil, metals, or crops) over time.

A trade bloc that includes free trade among members, a common external trade policy, and free movement of goods, services, and people (and often capital) across borders.

Planned actions that protect, restore, and manage natural environments and biodiversity to ensure ecosystems can function over the long term.

The abuse of public power for private gain, such as bribery, embezzlement, or favouritism.

A sharp reduction in the availability of credit (loans), often caused by weakened banks and increased fear of default.

A set of shared ideas and values, shaped by culture and social experience, that guides how individuals interpret the world and decide how to act.

Shared ideas, beliefs, values, customs, and ways of life.

A fall in the value of a currency in a floating exchange rate system, meaning it buys fewer units of foreign currency.

A self-reinforcing pattern where social and economic problems (such as unemployment, poor housing, and ill health) interact and make long-term disadvantage more likely.

A net loss of total welfare that occurs when a policy (such as a tariff) reduces the quantity traded below the efficient level.

The number of deaths per 1000 people per year.

The idea that government leaders must explain and justify decisions to citizens and can be replaced through political processes such as elections.

Economic, social, technological, environmental, and political obstacles that limit a country’s ability to raise incomes and improve quality of life.

A measurable statistic that provides evidence about a country’s level of social and economic development and the quality of life of its population.

A population that has spread or migrated from its original homeland to other regions, while often maintaining cultural connections to its place of origin.

A specialized field of study with its own typical questions, concepts, and methods for collecting and interpreting evidence.

The way tasks and jobs are split among individuals in a society, often increasing specialization and interdependence.

An information environment where a person mostly encounters opinions and information that reinforce what they already believe, making it harder to evaluate alternatives.

A way a society organizes production and distributes resources, deciding what to produce, how to produce it, and who receives it.

A person who leaves their own country to settle permanently in another.

A person willing and able to take risks to start and run a business, aiming to earn revenue and (after costs) profit.

A planned method used by a state or power to increase its control over territory, resources, or people, using tools such as force, diplomacy, economic influence, or settlement.

A good or service produced domestically and sold to buyers in another country, generating income for the exporting economy.

The amount earned when firms sell goods or services abroad.

An additional payment (on top of the product price) that is paid to a producer organization and used for community or business development projects chosen collectively.

A person who is compelled to move, often with limited choice and time to plan.

A non-renewable fuel formed from the buried remains of ancient organisms. Over millions of years, heat and geological pressure transform this organic matter into fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

An agreement in which member countries remove trade barriers to goods and services between themselves, while each country remains free to set its own trade policy with non-members.

The movement of goods, services, and financial payments between countries through imports, exports, and related money transfers.

A collective belief that unfair treatment is systematic and ongoing.

A situation in which two or more groups perceive their goals, interests, identities, or access to resources as incompatible, leading to tension, competition, or violence.

A form of acute social withdrawal in which a person isolates themselves at home for at least six months, avoiding school, work, and wider society.

Large Roman storage warehouses used to store grain and other essential goods for urban supply and state needs.

A household registration system in China that links access to some public services to a person’s registered place of residence.

The quality of people’s lives, including their ability to meet their needs, feel safe and included, access opportunities (such as education and health care), and live in a healthy environment, both now and in the future.

Thinkers who believe globalization is a powerful and largely beneficial force, making national borders less relevant and increasing global integration.

The lifelong process through which individuals develop and revise their sense of who they are, based on personal experiences and interactions with social and cultural environments.

A belief system or value framework (for example religion, political ideas, or economic assumptions) that influences decisions, institutions, and behaviour in a society.

A structured set of ideas, values, and beliefs that explains how society should work and guides political, economic, and social decisions.

A person who comes to live permanently in a foreign country.

The system by which an empire obtains resources (through taxes, tribute, labor, and control of trade) and redistributes them to fund government, infrastructure, and military power across a large territory.

A good or service bought from another country and consumed or used domestically, creating spending that leaves the domestic economy.

The amount spent when an economy buys goods or services from abroad.

A policy approach that uses protectionism to reduce imports of manufactured goods while developing domestic industries to produce those goods locally.

The group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging.

A political and/or military campaign in which a group seeks to end the authority of a larger state or empire over a territory, and to create self-rule (autonomy or a new sovereign state).

A political (and sometimes armed) movement aiming to separate from an existing state and form a new sovereign state.

The number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births in a given year.

Economic activity that is not formally regulated or taxed and typically lacks legal protections such as contracts, minimum wage enforcement, or social security.

A residential area where housing is built without formal planning permission and often lacks secure land tenure and access to basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and reliable electricity.

The physical systems (like transport and communication) needed for an economy to function.

The physical systems (like transport and communication) needed for an economy to function.

A percentage that has to be repaid in addition to the value of the loan, or the cost of borrowing.

A condition in which a state experiences sustained domestic disorder, weakening governance, or conflict, often due to failures in political, economic, and social systems.

Money used to build or expand productive capacity, such as factories, machinery, training, or technology, with the aim of raising future output and income.

Economic philosophy advocating minimal government interference in the economy, dominant before the Depression.

A state in which the amount and quality of land resources necessary to support ecosystem functions and food security are maintained or increased, so that overall land degradation is balanced by restoration.

A change in how land is used or managed by people, for example, converting forest to farmland, grassland to plantations, or rural land to urban built-up areas.

Leakages are withdrawals of money from the circular flow of income, meaning income is not immediately spent within the economy.

The institutions and processes through which a state makes laws, judges disputes, and enforces rules.

The belief that a ruler or government has the right to rule, often grounded in law, religion, tradition, or popular acceptance.

Average number of years a person is expected to live based on current mortality rates.

The proportion of the population that can read and write at a basic level.

An economic system where production and allocation decisions are mainly determined by markets and the price mechanism.

A psychological model suggesting that humans are motivated by a set of needs, from basic survival and safety needs to needs for belonging, esteem, and personal fulfilment.

The number of women who die from pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births (often used internationally) in a given year.

A form of social cohesion based on similarity, shared beliefs, and strong bonds in small, closely knit communities where people often perform similar tasks.

A person who moves from one place to another to find work or better living conditions.

The underlying factors that enable a state or empire to wage war effectively and sustainably, including organization, logistics, technology, and strategic relationships such as alliances.

A new technology, weapon system, or method of warfare that changes how conflicts are fought and what resources are needed to wage war.

The planning and organization of moving, supplying, and maintaining military forces, including transport, storage, communication, and maintenance.

A concept associated with Durkheim referring to how closely connected people are, based on how often and how intensely they interact, influenced by population density and communication technology.

A cost of production or consumption that is imposed on third parties and is not reflected in the market price.

A shared expectation about appropriate behavior in a social group.

A branch of philosophy that examines values and principles about what people ought to do, including ideas of right and wrong and what a good society should be.

Electricity generated using energy released from nuclear reactions (typically fission), producing heat that makes steam to drive turbines.

A form of social cohesion based on interdependence and specialization in large, complex societies where individuals perform different roles and rely on each other.

A group perceived as different from, and often opposed to, one’s own in-group.

A technology that converts sunlight directly into electrical energy using semiconductor materials.

Fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or smaller, often produced by combustion (for example from vehicles, power plants, and some industrial processes), which can be inhaled deep into the lungs.

Political factors (such as stability, governance quality, accountability, and state capacity) that influence a country’s ability to make and implement decisions that affect development outcomes.

A coherent set of ideas and values about how society should work, including beliefs about power, equality, rights, responsibilities, and the proper role of government and markets.

How the size of a population changes over time.

The organized system of institutions, laws, economic arrangements, and social relationships through which power is held, used, and maintained in a society.

An agreement in which countries reduce trade barriers (often tariffs) on certain goods for each other, giving members more favorable access than non-members.

A measure of the average prices of goods and services in an economy.

Goods produced mainly from natural resources, such as agricultural products and mined raw materials.

A small social group characterized by close, personal, and enduring relationships, where members provide emotional support and a strong sense of belonging.

A curve showing the maximum possible output combinations of two goods or services that can be produced with available resources and technology, assuming resources are used efficiently.

The efficiency with which inputs (such as labour, capital, land, and technology) are converted into outputs (goods and services). It is often measured as output per worker or output per hour.

A firm that aims to produce and sell in a way that increases profit, often assumed in economic models to predict supply decisions.

Goods that are non-excludable (people cannot be prevented from using them) and non-rivalrous (one person’s use does not reduce another’s), so the free market has little incentive to provide them.

In the Inca Empire, a state storehouse built in large numbers along road networks to store food, textiles, and weapons for redistribution and military supply.

Organized resistance against authority, often aiming to change policies, leadership, or the distribution of power within an existing state or empire.

An organized challenge to authority, usually directed at a ruler or government, which may seek reforms, replacement of leaders, or changes in policy (not necessarily separation).

An economic system in which the state collects goods from producers and then allocates them to communities, officials, or the military according to need or policy.

The concentration of production in particular areas based on local resources and conditions, with goods exchanged across a wider network.

The reduction in the quantity or quality of natural resources because extraction or use happens faster than natural replenishment (for renewable resources) or because a finite stock is being consumed (for non-renewable resources).

Improving existing buildings, infrastructure, and systems (such as transport and energy) to increase efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and improve quality of life.

The possibility of harmful outcomes resulting from an interaction between a hazard (potentially damaging event), exposure (people and assets in harm’s way), and vulnerability (susceptibility to harm).

A set of behaviors and responsibilities expected of an individual in a particular social position.

A system where laws are publicly known, applied consistently, and enforced fairly, including limits on government power and protection of rights such as property ownership.

Movement of people from rural areas to cities, usually in search of employment, education, and better access to services.

Rewards or punishments used by a group to encourage conformity to its norms.

A coherent way of understanding the world that is built from evidence, organized by concepts and models, and tested through systematic inquiry (such as observation, measurement, comparison, and critical evaluation of sources).

A larger, more goal-oriented social group in which relationships are more formal, role-based, and often temporary.

A territory that remains formally within an empire but governs many of its own affairs, often with its own military and taxation, due to distance or weakness of central control.

A measure that uses one statistic to describe one aspect of development, such as life expectancy or literacy rate.

People who believe globalization has been overstated and that global integration is not entirely new, pointing to historical periods when the world was similarly (or more) connected.

A system in which people are treated as property or are deprived of freedom and compelled to work through violence or coercion.

A densely populated urban area where housing is often built informally and residents typically have limited access to services such as clean water, sanitation, secure electricity, and legal land tenure.

A condition or problem that reduces quality of life or limits opportunities for groups of people, often requiring collective action through policies, services, or community support.

A set of people who interact with one another, share some sense of identity or belonging, and follow (explicitly or implicitly) shared norms and roles.

A ranked structure in a society or social group in which individuals and subgroups have different levels of power, status, and access to resources.

The effects that an event, decision, policy, or process has on people’s lives and on how society functions, including impacts on wellbeing, equality, culture, community, and social relationships.

Shared expectations within a group about how members should behave, speak, and interact.

The concentration of production on a limited range of goods or services so that output can be produced more efficiently, often to trade for other goods and services.

A permanent, full-time military force maintained by the state in peacetime as well as wartime.

A supply chain is the network of steps and organizations involved in producing and delivering a good, from raw materials to the final customer.

An international union or group whose decision-making extends beyond national boundaries and affects member states.

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Able to be maintained over the long term without causing unacceptable environmental, economic, or social harm, and without preventing future generations from meeting their needs.

Managing natural resources so extraction or use does not exceed the environment’s ability to regenerate and maintain ecosystem functions.

A tax placed on imported goods, increasing their price in the domestic market.

The process by which a government requires people to give resources (such as labor, goods, services, or money) to fund the state.

A compulsory contribution to the state, paid as labor, goods, or services, used to finance government and public systems.

Energy generated by converting the movement of ocean tides or tidal currents into electricity.

A formal arrangement between countries that sets rules for trade, such as tariffs, quotas, standards, or market access.

A set of rules, agreements, or organizations that shape how trade is conducted between countries, including how barriers are set or removed and how disputes are managed.

Unemployment is the situation where people who are able and willing to work, and are actively seeking employment, are unable to find a job.

A condition where traffic demand exceeds road capacity, causing slow speeds, delays, and increased vehicle idling.

Problems caused when city systems fail to manage pollution, waste, and resource use at the pace of urban growth.

The spatial pattern of land use, activities, and social groups within a city, including how different zones (such as the CBD, residential areas, and industry) are arranged and connected.

A city viewed as a set of interconnected parts (people, infrastructure, economy, services, environment) that interact through flows of resources, energy, goods, and information.

A person who chooses to move, usually to improve their quality of life

A conflict in which a region or people fight to separate from an existing state or empire to form an independent political unit.

Government programmes that provide financial or in-kind support to people facing unemployment, low income, illness, disability, or other hardships.