Activism is the action of individuals or groups working to create social, political, economic, or environmental change. It involves raising awareness, challenging injustice, and pressuring governments or institutions through methods such as protests, campaigns, and public advocacy.

A society where most people live in rural areas and rely on farming for food and income.

Aid is the transfer of money, goods, or expertise from one country or organisation to another in order to support development, emergency relief, or long-term growth. It can be given as Bilateral aid: one country directly supporting another. It can also be Multilateral aid: aid channelled through international organisations (e.g., UN, World Bank).

A person who has left their home country and is seeking protection (asylum) in another country.

Civil rights are the rights that protect individuals from discrimination and ensure equal treatment and full participation in society, especially in areas such as voting, education, employment, and access to public services.

The difference between what consumers are willing to pay and what they actually pay at the market price.

A counterculture is a social movement or group that actively rejects and challenges the dominant cultural norms, values, institutions, or lifestyle of mainstream society. Countercultures promote alternative beliefs, behaviors, and identities as a form of resistance or transformation.

Decolonization is the process by which colonies gain independence from imperial powers and become self-governing nations. It usually happens through political negotiations, nationalist movements, resistance or armed struggle and the decline of European empires after WWII.

Demographic change refers to shifts in the characteristics of a population over time, such as size, age structure, birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns.

A disruptor is a person, idea, or organisation that significantly changes or challenges existing systems, often by introducing new ways of doing things that make old methods less effective or obsolete. Disruptors push boundaries, break established patterns, and drive rapid transformation in industries or society.

An economy is the system a country or region uses to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. In simple terms: how money, jobs, businesses, and resources work together.

A person who leaves their own country to settle permanently in another.

A large political unit in which one central power (a ruler, government, or state) controls many different peoples and territories, often through conquest or expansion.

A sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in a specific population, community, or region.

Equality means that all people are treated with fairness, have equal rights, and have equal opportunities to participate in society, regardless of their background, identity, or circumstances.

An ethical choice is a decision guided by moral principles. It means choosing the option that is right, fair, and responsible, even if it is not the easiest or most beneficial for you.

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, personal responsibility, and the search for meaning in a world that has no inherent purpose. It argues that people must create their own values and identity through their choices and actions.

External pressure is a challenge or force that comes from outside an empire’s borders and affects its stability, power, or ability to survive. These pressures are not created by the empire itself but still influence its economy, military strength, leadership decisions, and relationships with other states.

A positive or negative impact on someone outside the transaction between buyers and sellers. If an externality exists, the market outcome may be inefficient because private costs and benefits do not match social costs and benefits.

Genocide is the intentional and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. This can include killing members of the group, causing serious physical or mental harm, creating conditions that make survival impossible, preventing births, or forcibly transferring children to another group.

Globalization is the process by which the world becomes increasingly connected through the movement of goods, people, ideas, technology, and cultures across national borders. It creates a world where events in one place can quickly affect people in another.

A healthcare system is the organized network of people, institutions, resources, and policies that deliver health services to a population. Its purpose is to promote health, prevent disease, diagnose and treat illness, and improve quality of life.

Humanism is an intellectual and cultural movement that emphasizes the value, dignity, and potential of human beings. It focuses on human reason, creativity, and achievements rather than divine or supernatural authority.

A humanitarian crisis is a situation where large numbers of people face serious threats to their life, health, safety, or basic well-being because of events such as conflict, natural disasters, disease outbreaks, or economic collapse.

A person who comes to live permanently in a foreign country.

Imperialism is when a powerful country extends its control over weaker regions or countries, usually to gain resources, land, wealth, or strategic advantage. This control can be political, economic, or military, and often involves ruling the territory as a colony.

The Industrial Revolution was a period of major economic, technological, and social change (about 1750–1850) when production shifted from handmade goods in homes to machine-made goods in factories. This transformation led to faster manufacturing, new forms of transport and energy, rapid urban growth, and significant changes in how people lived and worked.

The physical systems (like transport and communication) needed for an economy to function.

The physical systems (like transport and communication) needed for an economy to function.

The physical systems (like transport and communication) needed for an economy to function.

An innovator is someone who creates new ideas, methods, or products, or improves existing ones in a way that brings meaningful change. Innovators challenge old ways of thinking, experiment with solutions, and drive progress in society, technology, or everyday life.

A person forced to flee their home who remains within their country's borders.

A new device, idea, method, or process that someone creates for the first time. It did not exist before and is the result of creativity, problem-solving, or scientific and technical work.

The additional benefit received by the consumer from consuming one more unit.

The additional cost to producers of producing one more unit.

A situation where the market outcome is not efficient, often because prices do not reflect all social costs or benefits.

Replacing human or animal labour with machines powered by water, steam, or later electricity, allowing work to be done faster, cheaper, and on a much larger scale.

Meiji means “enlightened rule” and refers to the period from 1868–1912 when Japan’s emperor regained power and launched a huge programme of modernization and Westernization, transforming the country from a feudal society into a modern industrial nation.

A belief or economic system where governments try to increase national wealth by controlling trade, maximizing exports, minimizing imports, and hoarding gold and silver. It was common in Europe from the 1500s to 1700s.

A person who moves from one place to another in order to find work or better living conditions.

National identity refers to the shared sense of belonging to a nation. It is shaped by common cultural traits, historical memories, values, language, symbols, and political institutions, and gives people the feeling that they are part of the same collective.

A strong belief that your nation is unique, important, and should govern itself. It creates loyalty and pride, but can also lead to competition or conflict between nations.

Nationalism is a political and cultural ideology that emphasizes strong loyalty, devotion, and identification with one’s nation. It promotes the belief that people who share a common identity, such as language, culture, history, or ethnicity, should govern themselves and prioritize the interests of their nation.

Nationhood refers to the status of being a nation, a group of people who share a common identity based on elements like language, culture, history, and a sense of belonging. It’s the idea that “we are one people” and therefore should have the right to govern ourselves.

A global epidemic occurs when a disease outbreak spreads across countries and continents, affecting a large proportion of the population.

The way prices in a market adjust to changes in supply and demand, guiding producers and consumers toward an equilibrium price and quantity.

The difference between the market price and the minimum price producers would accept to supply a good.

A reform is a change made to improve society, usually by fixing problems in laws, working conditions, education, or government.

A person forced to leave their country to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.

A social justice movement is a collective effort by groups of people to challenge inequality, expand rights, and promote fair treatment for marginalized or disadvantaged communities. These movements work to change laws, institutions, and social attitudes so that everyone has equal opportunities and protection in society.

Social policy refers to the plans, laws, and actions that governments use to improve people’s well-being and address social issues such as health, education, poverty, housing, and inequality. In short: Social policy = government action to improve quality of life.

A social reform movement is an organized effort by individuals or groups to change laws, institutions, or social practices in order to improve society. These movements aim to address injustice, inequality, or harmful conditions and push for reforms through activism, advocacy, public awareness, and political pressure.

Growing just enough food for the family to survive, with little left over to sell or trade.

A superpower is a country with global influence due to its overwhelming military strength, economic power, political reach, and cultural impact.
Superpowers can shape international events far beyond their borders.

A supranational organisation is a group of countries that give up some national control to work together on shared goals such as security, trade, or peace.
Members follow common rules that are above individual governments.

Technology refers to tools, machines, systems, and methods that humans create to solve problems, improve efficiency, or make tasks easier. It can be physical (like machines) or digital (like software), and it constantly evolves as societies innovate.

The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, individual rights, and skepticism of traditional authority. Thinkers argued that human society could improve through rational thought, education, and political reform. They also argued that that government should be limited and accountable.

Trade is the exchange of goods, services, or resources between people, businesses, or countries. It can happen within a country (domestic trade) or between countries (international trade).

Systems of connected routes, by land or sea, through which people, goods, ideas, and sometimes diseases move between different regions or societies. They link multiple places together and allow regular, long-distance exchange.

Urbanization is the process where large numbers of people move from rural countryside areas to towns and cities, causing cities to grow quickly in size and population.