A technique that uses living cells and biomaterials to build biological structures layer by layer.

Nonliving environmental conditions such as temperature, light, pH, and moisture.

The minimum amount of energy required for reactant molecules to start a chemical reaction.

The region of an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place.

Traits that improve an organism’s chances of surviving and reproducing in its environment.

Speciation caused by geographical separation.

A protein produced by B lymphocytes that binds to a specific antigen to help neutralize it.

A molecule, usually a protein, that is recognised as foreign by the immune system and triggers an immune response.

A small molecule that stores and releases energy for cell processes.

Pollutants building up in an organism’s tissues over time.

Pollutant concentrations increase at higher trophic levels.

Living material that contains stored chemical energy.

A controlled system that supplies oxygen, nutrients, and conditions needed for living cells to survive and grow.

Interactions with living organisms, such as food availability, predators, competitors, and symbiotic partners.

The sequence of events that a cell goes through from one division to the next. Cells alternate between growing (interphase) and dividing.

The process by which one cell splits into two daughter cells. This is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction.

A selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that surrounds all cells, controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

A rigid structural layer composed primarily of cellulose (in plants) that surrounds the cell membrane, providing mechanical support and protection.

A chemical process that releases energy from glucose.

The force that holds atoms together in molecules.

Energy stored inside the bonds of molecules such as glucose. Organisms release this energy during respiration.

A process in which atoms in molecules are rearranged to form new substances with different properties.

Double-membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells and algae containing chlorophyll, which are the site of photosynthesis.

The process of producing genetically identical copies of a cell or organism using natural or artificial methods.

Attraction between water molecules due to hydrogen bonding.

When organisms require the same limited resource and not all individuals can obtain enough to survive and reproduce.

The protection and management of ecosystems and species to preserve biodiversity and ecological stability.

An organism that obtains energy by eating other organisms.

A system where water and blood move in opposite directions to maximize oxygen diffusion.

The aqueous, gel-like substance enclosed by the cell membrane that contains all organelles, dissolved nutrients, enzymes, and where many metabolic reactions occur.

A long, double-helical molecule that stores genetic instructions.

The process by which a cell becomes specialized to perform a specific function, involving changes in structure and which genes are expressed.

The net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient, as a result of random movement.

The breakdown of large food molecules into smaller, absorbable molecules.

Differences in traits between organisms or species.

An allele that is expressed even if only one copy is present (shown with a capital letter, e.g., R).

A gland that makes and releases hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Matching energy gained from food with energy the body uses.

Additional warming caused by increased greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.

A change in the surroundings that influences an organism’s development.

A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

A nutrient the body cannot produce and must obtain through the diet.

The population-level change in allele frequencies over generations, driven by selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift.

The fusion of male and female gametes to produce a zygote.

A simple, linear sequence showing how energy and nutrients pass from producers to consumers across trophic levels (e.g., producer → herbivore → carnivore → apex predator).

An interconnected network of multiple food chains that maps all feeding relationships in an ecosystem, showing species with multiple food sources and roles across trophic levels.

A sequence of organs arranged so that each step leads logically to the next.

A reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that contains half the usual number of chromosomes.

The transfer of oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out across a specialized surface.

A section of DNA that codes for one protein.

The process by which humans alter the DNA of an organism by inserting, removing, or changing specific genes to produce desired traits.

A diagram showing the positions of genes or markers along DNA.

The process where a seed absorbs water, breaks dormancy, and begins to grow.

Growth in response to gravity.

The natural warming of Earth caused by greenhouse gases trapping outgoing longwave radiation.

The natural environment that provides the resources and conditions an organism needs to survive and reproduce.

Any alteration to the environmental conditions of a habitat that affects the organisms living there.

Cells that contain one set of chromosomes.

A state in which physical systems function normally, mental well-being is maintained, and individuals can cope with everyday social and psychological demands.

Protection of a population when a sufficiently high proportion is immune, reducing disease transmission.

Having two different alleles (Rr)

The regulation of internal conditions to maintain a stable environment for optimal cell function.

The control of internal conditions to keep them within safe limits.

Chromosome pairs (one from each parent) that carry the same types of genes.

Having two of the same alleles (RR or rr)

A chemical messenger released by glands that travels in the bloodstream to target organs, where it produces a specific response.

The ways humans alter ecosystems through large-scale, rapid, and interconnected activities.

When individuals from different species mate and produce offspring.

A solution with lower water concentration than the cell contents (more concentrated). Water moves out of the cell by osmosis.

A solution with higher water concentration than the cell contents (more dilute). Water moves into the cell by osmosis.

Random orientation of homologous pairs during metaphase, creating varied chromosome combinations.

The transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.

The reliance of organisms on other living organisms for survival and successful reproduction.

Occurs between individuals of different species that rely on the same limited resource.

Occurs between individuals of the same species.

A solution with the same water concentration as the cell contents. No net water movement occurs.

A species with an unusually large influence on its ecosystem.

The sequence of developmental stages an organism passes through from birth to reproduction and eventually death.

Receptors that bend when sound vibrations move through the inner ear.

A type of cell division that produces four genetically different haploid cells, each containing half the chromosome number of the parent cell.

Organelles enclosed by a phospholipid bilayer membrane that creates a separate internal environment from the cytoplasm.

A state of emotional and psychological well-being that allows individuals to cope with stress, work productively, and maintain relationships.

All chemical reactions in living organisms, both building up molecules and breaking them down.

A hormone-controlled transformation in body form as an organism progresses through its life stages.

The smallest population size required for long-term survival.

Actions that reduce the severity of environmental harm or restore ecosystems after damage has occurred.

Double-membrane-bound organelles that are the site of aerobic cellular respiration, converting glucose and oxygen into ATP (usable energy).

A small circular genome in mitochondria, inherited only from the mother.

A type of cell division used for growth and repair that produces two genetically identical daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

A temporary copy of a gene used to carry instructions to the ribosome.

A process where individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully than others.

A mechanism that reverses a change to maintain stability.

A building block of DNA consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

A membrane-bound organelle containing chromosomes (DNA) and a nucleolus, which controls cellular activities by regulating gene expression and protein synthesis.

The continuous movement of essential chemical elements through living organisms and the environment.

A substance in food that provides energy or materials for life processes.

A chemoreceptor in the nose that detects airborne chemicals.

A structure made of two or more tissues working together to perform a specific function.

A group of organs that work together to carry out a major life process.

Discrete structures within a cell that have specific shapes and perform specialized functions.

Membrane-bound or non-membrane-bound structures within a cell that perform specific, specialized functions essential for cellular processes.

The control of water content in the body.

The net movement of water molecules from an area of higher water concentration (dilute solution) to an area of lower water concentration (concentrated solution), across a partially permeable membrane.

The unsustainable use of a renewable resource, causing its population size to decrease over time.

The extra oxygen needed after exercise to break down lactic acid.

An organism that lives on or inside a host, benefits from the host’s resources, and harms the host.

A biological agent that causes disease in a host organism.

How the brain interprets sensory signals to create an experience.

Transports sucrose and organic molecules in both directions through translocation.

Light-sensitive cells that convert light into electrical signals.

A chemical process where light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.

Growth toward or away from light.

Introduction of harmful substances/energy into air, water, or soil that negatively affects organisms or ecosystems.

A biological interaction in which one organism (the predator) captures and consumes another organism (the prey) as a food source.

An organism that makes its own food using an external energy source, usually sunlight.

An organism that captures energy from the environment and stores it in biomass.

The period when physical and reproductive maturity develops.

A molecule on a target cell that detects and responds to a specific hormone.

A specialized cell or structure that notices a change (stimulus) and sends a signal telling the body what to do next.

An allele only expressed if two copies are present (shown with a lowercase letter, e.g., r)

DNA formed by combining genetic material from two different organisms.

The point where chromosome number is halved.

The process by which living organisms produce new individuals to ensure the continuation of their species.

Any population where a pathogen can live, survive, and reproduce over time.

The ability of an ecosystem to withstand change or recover after disturbance.

Small non-membrane-bound organelles composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins, which are the site of protein synthesis through translation.

Each new DNA molecule keeps (“conserves”) half of the original DNA and builds the other half new.

A way the body gathers information through receptors and sends it to the brain for interpretation.

Reading the nucleotide order (A, T, C, G) in DNA.

Features found across all living organisms.

A cloning technique in which the nucleus from an adult body cell is inserted into an enucleated egg cell to form an embryo.

Receptors in the skin that detect physical changes like pressure, heat, and pain.

Receptors in the skin that detect physical changes like pressure, heat, and pain.

Cells that have undergone differentiation to acquire a specific structure and function adapted to a particular role in an organism.

The process by which one species splits into two.

A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

A group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.

Unspecialized cells that can divide and differentiate into many different specialized cell types.

Small openings in the leaf surface that allow gas exchange.

The ability of an organ to hold its shape and continue functioning under stress.

The natural, ordered progression of species recolonizing and rebuilding an ecosystem.

The relationship between a cell's surface area (outer membrane) and its volume (internal space). As cells get larger, this ratio decreases, creating problems for the cell.

A long-term, close interaction between individuals of two different species.

Speciation that occurs without geographical separation.

A cluster of chemoreceptors that detect dissolved chemicals in food.

A group of similar, specialised cells working together to perform one function.

The specific arrangement of tissues inside an organ that enables it to function.

The ability of a cell to develop into any type of cell and form a complete organism.

A situation where individuals or nations overuse a shared resource for personal gain, causing long-term harm to the whole group.

The process of copying a gene’s DNA sequence into mRNA.

The process in which receptors turn a stimulus into an electrical or chemical signal the body can interpret.

The process of using mRNA instructions to assemble amino acids into a protein.

Transport of sucrose and other organic molecules through the phloem.

The loss of water vapor from a plant’s leaves through the stomata.

A series of population changes across multiple trophic levels caused by a change in one species.

The position an organism occupies in a feeding sequence.

A directional growth response to a stimulus, either toward it (positive) or away from it (negative).

Shared biological features found across all living organisms.

A membrane-bound organelle filled with cell sap (water, dissolved sugars, salts, and pigments) that maintains turgor pressure in plant cells.

A living carrier that transfers a pathogen without being the primary host.

Transports water and mineral ions from roots to leaves through transpiration pull.