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Sanctions
Rewards or punishments used by a group to encourage conformity to its norms.
Social Norms
Shared expectations within a group about how members should behave, speak, and interact.
Social Groups and Human Interaction
Social group types
Identity formation
Social norms
Group conflict
Origins of Empires
Political drivers
Military drivers
Economic drivers
Ideological drivers
Structures and Functions of Empires
Imperial governance
Administrative systems
Imperial economies
Social hierarchies
Expansion strategies
Decline and Collapse of Empires
Internal instability
External pressures
Economic decline
Independence movements
Human Impacts on Natural Environments
Land-use change
Resource depletion
Pollution
Conservation strategies
Population Change and Social Effects
Population growth
Demographic transition
Migration patterns
Urbanisation
Social impacts
Economic impacts
Urban Systems and Sustainable Management
Urban structure
Environmental challenges
Social challenges
Sustainable planning
Economic Decision-Making and Production
Scarcity
Resource allocation
Economic systems
Specialisation
Productivity
Opportunity cost
Trade, Fairness and Global Exchange
Global trade flows
Trade institutions
Fair trade
Economic interdependence
Development and Standards of Living
Development indicators
Human wellbeing
Development barriers
Development strategies
Sustainable Use of Earth’s Resources
Renewable resources
Non-renewable resources
Risk and resilience
Environmental governance
Historical Perspectives and Changing Worldviews
Cultural worldviews
Scientific worldviews
Political worldviews