IB Philosophy 4.1.1 Moral Principles Key Definitions

Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality, commanding unconditionally. Its first formulation requires acting only on maxims that could be willed as universal laws, and its second formulation requires treating persons always as ends in themselves, never merely as means.

Moral principle: a fundamental standard of right and wrong conduct that guides moral reasoning and action. Moral principles may be grounded in duty, consequences, virtue, divine command, or other foundations, and may be held to be universal or culturally relative.

Teleological theories assess the morality of actions by reference to the ends or consequences they bring about, holding that the right action is whichever produces the best overall outcome. Utilitarianism, the most prominent teleological theory, identifies the good with the greatest happiness for the greatest number, though critics argue this can justify intuitively unjust means.

Utilitarianism is the consequentialist moral theory holding that an action is right insofar as it maximises overall happiness or well-being and wrong insofar as it produces the reverse, requiring agents to weigh the interests of every affected party impartially. Developed by Bentham and Mill, the theory provides a powerful framework for public policy but faces objections concerning the rights of minorities and the demandingness of always optimising outcomes.