IB Philosophy 4.1.1 Moral Principles Notes

The Question of Moral Principles

1. Unit 4 addresses one of the oldest questions in philosophy: how should we act? While Unit 1 explored what it means to be human and Unit 3 examined what we can know, ethics asks what we ought to do, how we should treat others, and whether there are fundamental moral principles that apply in all situations.
2. The IB syllabus frames the central tension of this topic around three questions. Is ethics more about self-interest or about the interests of others?
3. Is there a meaningful distinction between doing the "right thing" and doing the "best thing"? Does the principle of the greatest good for the greatest number provide an adequate foundation for moral reasoning?
4. These questions reveal a deep divide in moral philosophy between two families of ethical theory. Deontological theories hold that certain actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of consequences.
5. Teleological theories hold that the rightness of an action depends on the outcomes it produces. This distinction structures the entire Normative Ethics sub-theme and will be examined further in 4.1.3.
6. Ethical egoism holds that each person ought to act in their own self-interest. Thomas Hobbes argued that in a 'state of nature' without government, rational self-preservation is the only viable strategy, cooperation emerges only because it serves individual survival.
7. A modern example: a business executive who donates to charity solely to enhance their company's reputation acts from self-interest, yet the outcome benefits others. Critics argue that ethical egoism cannot explain why we admire genuine self-sacrifice (a firefighter rushing into a burning building) or condemn pure selfishness, suggesting that morality requires going beyond self-interest.

The Right-Best Distinction and Moral Relativism

1. The distinction between doing the "right thing" and doing the "best thing" captures the core disagreement between deontological and teleological approaches. For a deontologist, the right action is determined by moral rules or duties regardless of outcomes.
2. For a teleologist, the best action is whichever produces the most favourable consequences, even if it involves breaking a moral rule.
3. Consider a classic example: is it permissible to lie to save a life? A strict deontologist argues that lying violates a moral duty to tell the truth.
4. A teleologist argues that lying is justified if it produces a better outcome. This disagreement illustrates why the question of moral principles shapes how we act in the most difficult situations we face.
5. The overarching Unit 4 question, "Are there fundamental moral principles that apply in all situations?", invites students to consider whether morality is universal or relative. Moral universalism holds that some principles apply to all people at all times.
6. Moral relativism holds that moral principles depend on cultural context or individual perspective.
7. The question "Are moral decisions culturally influenced?" adds a further dimension. The inclusion of non-Western ethical traditions in this topic (Buddhist dharma, Mohist consequentialism) reflects the IB's commitment to examining morality from multiple philosophical perspectives rather than treating Western ethics as the sole framework.
8. This topic provides the conceptual map for the rest of Unit 4. The deontological and teleological theories introduced here will be contrasted directly in 4.1.3, while 4.1.2 will introduce virtue ethics as a third approach.
9. The meta-ethical questions of 4.2 (meta-ethics asks what moral judgements are, and whether they can be true or false) will then examine the deeper foundations of moral judgement itself.
10. Throughout this unit, students should attend to practical implications. The theories introduced here provide the tools for analysing real-world moral questions in biomedical ethics (4.3.1), business ethics (4.3.2), and the distribution of wealth (4.3.3).
11. Philosophy treats moral questions not as abstract puzzles but as frameworks for responsible action.

Deontological Approaches: Duty, Rules, and the Right