IB Philosophy 4.1 Normative Ethics Key Definitions

Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality, commanding unconditionally. Its first formulation requires acting only on maxims that could be willed as universal laws, and its second formulation requires treating persons always as ends in themselves, never merely as means.

Deontological theories hold that the morality of an action depends on whether it conforms to binding rules or duties rather than on the consequences it produces, so that some acts are intrinsically right or wrong regardless of their outcomes. The most influential version, Kant's categorical imperative, demands that we act only on principles we could consistently will to be universal laws.

Deontological ethics judges actions by conformity to moral duties or rules, holding that some actions are intrinsically right or wrong. Teleological ethics judges actions by their consequences or outcomes, holding that the right action is whichever produces the most good.

Dharma (ethical context): in Buddhism, the teachings of the Buddha and the natural moral law guiding right action. Buddhist dharma integrates duty, consequences, and character cultivation, resisting neat classification as either deontological or teleological.

Moral principle: a fundamental standard of right and wrong conduct that guides moral reasoning and action. Moral principles may be grounded in duty, consequences, virtue, divine command, or other foundations, and may be held to be universal or culturally relative.

(practical wisdom) Aristotle’s term for the intellectual virtue that enables a person to deliberate well about what is good in particular situations and to act accordingly. Unlike theoretical knowledge, phronesis cannot be reduced to rules but requires cultivated moral perception that guides all other virtues.

Teleological theories assess the morality of actions by reference to the ends or consequences they bring about, holding that the right action is whichever produces the best overall outcome. Utilitarianism, the most prominent teleological theory, identifies the good with the greatest happiness for the greatest number, though critics argue this can justify intuitively unjust means.

Utilitarianism is the consequentialist moral theory holding that an action is right insofar as it maximises overall happiness or well-being and wrong insofar as it produces the reverse, requiring agents to weigh the interests of every affected party impartially. Developed by Bentham and Mill, the theory provides a powerful framework for public policy but faces objections concerning the rights of minorities and the demandingness of always optimising outcomes.

Virtue ethics is an approach to morality that focuses on developing good character traits rather than on rules or consequences, originating with Aristotle and identifying eudaimonia (human flourishing) as the goal of moral life.