IB Philosophy 7. Political Philosophy Key Definitions

Asabiya (group solidarity) is Ibn Khaldun's concept of the social cohesion and collective will that binds a group together and enables it to establish and sustain political power. In his cyclical theory of history, strong asabiya drives nomadic or marginal groups to overthrow complacent dynasties, but the luxuries of settled rule gradually erode this solidarity, setting the stage for a new cycle of conquest.

Authoritarianism concentrates political power in a single leader or small group that rules without meaningful democratic accountability, while totalitarianism extends this control into every aspect of citizens' lives, including ideology, culture, and private thought. Arendt distinguished the two by arguing that totalitarian regimes, through terror and propaganda, seek not merely obedience but the total transformation of human nature itself.

Censorship is the suppression or restriction of speech, publication, or other forms of expression by a government, institution, or other authority, typically justified on grounds of national security, public morality, or social harmony. Mill argued in On Liberty that censorship harms society by silencing potentially true ideas and preventing the refinement of beliefs through open debate, making the free marketplace of ideas essential to human progress.

Civil disobedience is the deliberate, public, and non-violent refusal to obey a law or policy that one considers unjust, undertaken to bring about a change in government policy. Theorised by Thoreau and practised by Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr., it was defended by Rawls as a legitimate act within a nearly just society.

the sphere of voluntary associations, institutions, and organisations that operate independently of the state, including religious groups, trade unions, the press, charities, and community organisations. Political philosophers from Hegel to Habermas have debated whether civil society is a necessary complement to state power or a site of class conflict.

Cultural imperialism refers to the imposition of one culture's values, norms, or practices onto other cultures, typically by those in positions of global power. Nussbaum responds to this objection by grounding the capabilities list in cross-cultural dialogue rather than any single cultural tradition.

Distributive justice is the branch of ethics concerned with the fair allocation of resources, opportunities, and burdens across members of a society, addressing who gets what and on what basis.

the family of theories holding that equality is the foundational value of justice. Egalitarian positions range from strict equality (everyone should have the same) to luck egalitarianism (inequalities are unjust only when they arise from circumstances beyond an individual's control) to prioritarianism (priority should be given to the worst off, even if strict equality is not achieved).

the principle that individuals in relevantly similar circumstances should be treated identically, regardless of their particular characteristics. Formal equality guarantees equal treatment under the law but does not address pre-existing inequalities of wealth, power, or social position, which is why critics argue it can mask substantive injustice.

Freedom of information is the right of individuals to access, share, and receive information without unjustified interference from governments or other powerful institutions, recognised as essential to democratic accountability and informed citizenship. The principle underpins transparency laws and press freedoms but must be balanced against legitimate concerns such as privacy, national security, and the prevention of harm.

A government is the set of institutions and individuals that make, enforce, and interpret laws within a state, exercising authority over a defined territory and population. Political philosophers from Hobbes to Locke have debated whether government originates in a social contract, divine mandate, or the practical need to escape a lawless state of nature.

expression targeting individuals or groups on the basis of race, religion, gender, or sexuality, which may incite hostility or violence. Whether hate speech constitutes "harm" in Mill's sense is one of the most contested questions in contemporary free speech debates.

Legitimacy in political philosophy refers to the moral right of a government to exercise authority and the corresponding obligation of citizens to obey its laws. Theories of legitimacy range from consent-based accounts, which ground authority in the agreement of the governed, to procedural accounts that locate it in fair institutional processes, and substantive accounts that tie it to the government's delivery of justice and the common good.

Liberty in political philosophy refers to the freedom of individuals to act, think, and speak without unnecessary constraint, a concept that Isaiah Berlin influentially divided into negative liberty (freedom from interference) and positive liberty (freedom to realise one's potential). The tension between these two conceptions shapes debates over the proper scope of government, the limits of individual rights, and the conditions required for genuine human flourishing.

A monarchy is a system of government in which supreme authority is vested in a single ruler, typically a king or queen, whose position is usually inherited through a dynastic line. Philosophers from Aristotle to Hobbes debated whether concentrated rule offers stability and decisive action or degenerates into tyranny when unchecked by law and accountability.

A multi-party democracy is a political system in which multiple independent parties compete for power through free elections, allowing voters to choose among genuinely different platforms and holding governments accountable through the possibility of electoral defeat. Proponents argue that competitive pluralism best protects individual rights and represents diverse interests, while critics note the risks of fragmentation, gridlock, and populist manipulation.

Natural rights are rights that individuals possess by virtue of their humanity, prior to and independent of any legal system or political institution. John Locke argued that the rights to life, liberty, and property are natural and inalienable, and a government that violates them forfeits its legitimacy.

Negative liberty is freedom from external interference, being left alone to act without obstacles imposed by others. Positive liberty is the freedom to govern oneself and realise one's true or higher nature. Isaiah Berlin warned that positive liberty can be co-opted to justify coercion in the name of what people supposedly 'really' want.

Negative rights are rights not to be interfered with, requiring others (including the state) to refrain from acting. Positive rights are rights to be provided with something, requiring others to take action such as providing education or healthcare. The distinction is politically significant because positive rights demand resources and redistribution, while negative rights demand only restraint.

Negative liberty is the absence of external constraints or interference by other persons or institutions, so that an individual is free to the extent that no one deliberately blocks their possible courses of action. Championed by Berlin and classical liberals, the concept prioritises non-interference but faces the objection that formal freedom means little to those who lack the resources or capabilities to exercise it.

An oligarchy is a form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a small, privileged elite, whether defined by wealth, military status, or family lineage. Aristotle classified oligarchy as a corruption of aristocracy, arguing that rule by the few serves the rulers' interests rather than the common good, a critique echoed in modern concerns about plutocracy and elite capture of democratic institutions.

A one-party democracy is a system in which a single political party dominates the political landscape while maintaining formal democratic structures such as elections and legislatures. Advocates, particularly in post-colonial contexts, have argued that one-party rule prevents ethnic fragmentation and accelerates development, while critics contend that without genuine political competition, accountability and civil liberties inevitably erode.

Positive liberty is the presence of conditions that enable individuals to realise their potential and govern themselves according to their rational will, going beyond mere non-interference to require access to education, health, and political participation. While the concept motivates welfare-state policies and republican self-governance, critics such as Berlin warned that defining freedom as self-mastery can be co-opted by authoritarian regimes claiming to liberate people from their own irrational desires.

Restorative justice is an approach to justice that focuses on repairing the harm caused by wrongdoing rather than on punishing the offender. It typically involves facilitated dialogue between victims, offenders, and the community, drawing on indigenous traditions as an alternative to retributive and purely utilitarian models.