IB Philosophy 6.3.3 Implications of Science Key Definitions

a model of scientific research characterised by large-scale funding, institutional collaboration, and international coordination, exemplified by projects such as the Manhattan Project and the Human Genome Project. Big science raises philosophical questions about resource allocation, paradigm entrenchment, and the distribution of scientific benefits across societies.

one of Robert Merton's four norms of science, holding that scientists should pursue knowledge without personal gain or self-interest as a motive. Critics argue that disinterestedness is insufficient as a moral standard, since a scientist may act without personal bias yet still bear moral culpability for failing to consider the harmful applications of their findings.

Informed consent is a foundational principle of research ethics requiring that participants voluntarily agree to take part in a study after receiving clear information about its nature, risks, and purpose. Established by the Nuremberg Code (1947), it affirms that the autonomy and dignity of research subjects must be respected regardless of the potential benefits.

The precautionary principle is an ethical and policy guideline holding that when an action risks serious or irreversible harm, the absence of scientific certainty should not be used to postpone preventive measures. It shifts the burden of proof onto those who wish to proceed with potentially harmful activities, and is widely applied in environmental and biomedical policy debates.

The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological problem, especially in psychology and biomedicine, in which a significant proportion of published findings cannot be reproduced by independent researchers. It has been linked to funding pressures, publication bias toward positive results, and questionable research practices such as p-hacking.