| Front | Back | | --- | --- | | What is the demarcation problem in philosophy of science, and why is it socially significant? |

Definition: The philosophical question of how to distinguish genuine science from pseudo-science, non-scientific beliefs, and other forms of inquiry.
Social significance: It directly affects government funding, educational curricula, legal proceedings, and public policy.

| | What is the logical positivist criterion for scientific demarcation, and who is a key thinker associated with it? |

Criterion: The verification principle (a statement is scientific only if it can be verified through direct observation or logical reasoning).
Thinker: A.J. Ayer.

| | State the primary objection to the logical positivist verification principle regarding scientific laws. | Universal scientific laws (e.g., "all metals expand when heated") apply to an infinite number of cases, making them impossible to conclusively verify through finite observations. | | What is Karl Popper's demarcation criterion, and what must a theory do to meet it? |

Criterion: Falsificationism.
Requirement: A theory must make bold, testable predictions that could, in principle, be shown false by observation or experiment.

| | Why did Karl Popper classify Marxism and Freudian psychoanalysis as pseudo-sciences? | They are unfalsifiable because their followers can reinterpret any apparent counterevidence to fit their framework, making the theories immune to refutation. | | Why did Karl Popper consider Einstein's general theory of relativity a paradigm of genuine science? | It made highly specific, risky predictions (such as gravity bending light) that could have easily been observed to be false, exposing the theory to genuine potential refutation. | | Explain the logical asymmetry between verification and falsification using Popper's swan example. |

No number of white swan observations can logically prove "all swans are white" (the problem of induction).
However, observing just one black swan decisively disproves the claim.

| | What does Karl Popper mean by "corroboration," and is a corroborated theory considered proven? |

Corroboration: The positive standing a theory earns when it survives severe and demanding tests.
Status: It is never proven true; its acceptance is always provisional and subject to future refutation.

| | How does the Duhem-Quine thesis challenge Karl Popper's falsificationism? | Scientific hypotheses are never tested in isolation but alongside auxiliary assumptions; when a prediction fails, scientists can modify an auxiliary assumption rather than abandoning the core theory. | | How does the historical case of Uranus's orbit challenge Popper's strict falsificationism? | Instead of abandoning Newton's gravity when Uranus's orbit deviated (apparent falsification), scientists preserved the theory by postulating an unseen planet (Neptune), which proved highly productive. | | How does Thomas Kuhn's approach to demarcation differ fundamentally from Popper's? |

Popper: Uses a formal, logical criterion (falsifiability).
Kuhn: Uses a sociological and historical criterion (whether a field has a shared paradigm and practices normal science).

| | How does Thomas Kuhn distinguish genuine science from pseudo-science using the concept of "normal science"? |

Science: Engages in "normal science" (routine puzzle-solving within a single, shared paradigm).
Pseudo-science: Lacks a dominant paradigm, resulting in perpetual disagreement over fundamental assumptions.

| | What is the main objection to Thomas Kuhn's sociological approach to demarcation? | It is purely descriptive rather than normative; it defines science by what scientific communities happen to do, failing to provide an objective standard of scientific validity. | | How does Imre Lakatos's "research programmes" model attempt to reconcile Popper and Kuhn? | It proposes a non-negotiable hard core of theory (similar to Kuhn's paradigm) surrounded by a protective belt of auxiliary assumptions that can be adjusted to handle anomalies (similar to Popper's testing). | | How does Imre Lakatos distinguish a progressive research programme from a degenerative one? |

Progressive: Generates successful, novel predictions over time (e.g., predicting Neptune).
Degenerative: Merely explains away anomalies ad hoc after the fact (e.g., Ptolemaic epicycles).

| | What is Paul Feyerabend's view on the demarcation problem, and what is his position called? |

View: He rejects demarcation entirely, arguing there is no universal scientific method and that rule-breaking is necessary for progress.
Position: Epistemological anarchism.

| | How does Paul Feyerabend use Galileo's defense of heliocentrism to support epistemological anarchism? | Galileo succeeded only by violating accepted scientific rules of his time (using unproven telescopes, thought experiments, and ad hoc assumptions), showing that rigid methods limit progress. | | How does Larry Laudan propose we evaluate competing theories instead of using a sharp demarcation boundary? | By their cumulative problem-solving effectiveness (how well a theory solves the practical and conceptual problems it addresses, like kinetic theory replacing caloric theory). | | The logical positivist A.J. Ayer argued that statements are only scientific if they can be verified through sensory experience or logic. | The logical positivist A.J. Ayer argued that statements are only scientific if they can be verified through sensory experience or logic. | | While Karl Popper proposed falsificationism as a logical demarcation criterion, Thomas Kuhn argued that science is defined by the social consensus of a paradigm. | While Karl Popper proposed falsificationism as a logical demarcation criterion, Thomas Kuhn argued that science is defined by the social consensus of a paradigm. |

1. Being human6 subtopics

2. Aesthetics3 subtopics

3. Epistemology3 subtopics

4. Ethics3 subtopics

5. Philosophy of religion3 subtopics

6. Philosophy of science3 subtopics

7. Political philosophy3 subtopics

8. Social philosophy3 subtopics

9. HL extension: Philosophy and contemporary issues3 subtopics

10. Prescribed philosophical texts12 subtopics

IB Philosophy 6.1.2 Demarcation Flashcards