| Front | Back | | --- | --- | | What is the difference between a hypothesis and a scientific theory in the philosophy of science? |

A hypothesis is a provisional, testable explanation for a specific, narrow phenomenon.
A scientific theory is a comprehensive, well-tested explanatory framework that integrates multiple hypotheses and laws.

| | What is David Hume's "problem of induction" regarding scientific methodology? | Inductive reasoning moves from particular observations to general laws, but it cannot be rationally justified without circularity, because any defense of induction presupposes the uniformity of nature. | | How did Karl Popper attempt to resolve or sidestep the problem of induction in scientific practice? | He argued science does not rely on induction; instead, it progresses through conjecture and refutation, where scientists propose bold hypotheses and actively try to falsify them. | | What are the components of Carl Hempel's Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model of scientific explanation? | An event is explained by showing it follows deductively from:

One or more general laws.
Specific initial conditions.

| | What is the "flagpole" objection to Hempel's Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model of explanation? | It shows the model lacks explanatory direction (asymmetry): one can deductively calculate a flagpole's height from its shadow's length and the sun's angle, but the shadow does not explain why the flagpole is that height. | | Why is Hempel's Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model difficult to apply to sciences like biology or sociology? | These sciences rarely have strict universal laws, relying instead on probabilistic generalizations (e.g., smoking increases the likelihood of cancer, but does not guarantee it). | | How does Hempel's Inductive-Statistical model differ from his Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model? | Instead of deducing an event from universal laws, it explains events using probabilistic generalizations and statistical regularities. | | Compare the concepts of "unification" and "reduction" in the philosophy of science. What is the key difference? |

Unification brings diverse phenomena under a single explanatory framework (e.g., Newton's gravity).
Reduction derives the laws of one entire domain from a more fundamental domain (e.g., chemistry to physics).

| | According to Ernest Nagel, how does inter-theoretic reduction succeed, and what role do "bridge principles" play? | Reduction succeeds when a less fundamental theory's laws are logically derived from a more fundamental one. Bridge principles act as translation rules linking their vocabularies (e.g., temperature to kinetic energy). | | What is the difference between methodological reductionism and ontological reductionism? |

Methodological reductionism is a research strategy of breaking complex systems into parts to study them.
Ontological reductionism is the metaphysical claim that higher-level entities are nothing more than their physical parts.

| | State the "emergence" objection to ontological reductionism, using an example. | Some complex phenomena (like consciousness or social behavior) arise from physical parts but possess novel properties that cannot be fully explained or described using only the language of lower-level physics or chemistry. | | Why does Philip Kitcher argue that Darwin's theory of natural selection is an example of "explanatory unification" rather than reduction? | Darwin did not derive biology from physics (reduction); instead, he provided a single argument pattern (variation, selection, inheritance) that explains a vast range of disconnected biological phenomena (unification). | | Outline the steps of the classic hypothetico-deductive (HD) method of theory-formation. |

Observe a phenomenon.
Formulate a hypothesis.
Derive a testable prediction.
Test the prediction through experiment/observation.

| | How does inference to the best explanation (abduction) differ from the hypothetico-deductive method? | Instead of just testing predictions of one hypothesis, scientists choose between competing hypotheses by evaluating which one best accounts for the evidence based on simplicity, coherence, and explanatory power. | | How does Ignaz Semmelweis's discovery of the cause of childbed fever illustrate "inference to the best explanation" (abduction)? | Semmelweis did not deduce his conclusion from universal laws; instead, he systematically eliminated rival explanations (diet, crowding) and inferred that "cadaverous particles" on doctors' hands was the explanation that best fit all observed facts. | | What is the Duhem-Quine thesis (methodological holism) regarding scientific testing? | A scientific theory is never tested in isolation; it is tested as part of an interconnected web of beliefs (including background assumptions and instrument reliability), meaning a failed prediction cannot logically pinpoint which specific belief is false. | | How does the 19th-century anomaly of Mercury's orbit illustrate the Duhem-Quine thesis? | When Newtonian predictions failed, scientists did not immediately abandon Newton; they adjusted other parts of the web of belief (proposing a hidden planet, Vulcan) before Einstein's relativity eventually replaced Newtonian gravity itself. | | The deductive-nomological model of scientific explanation, developed by Hempel and Oppenheim, explains an event by showing it follows logically from general laws and initial conditions. | The deductive-nomological model of scientific explanation, developed by Hempel and Oppenheim, explains an event by showing it follows logically from general laws and initial conditions. | | Ernest Nagel formulated the classic model of inter-theoretic reduction, arguing that a less fundamental theory can be absorbed if its laws are derived from a fundamental theory using bridge principles. | Ernest Nagel formulated the classic model of inter-theoretic reduction, arguing that a less fundamental theory can be absorbed if its laws are derived from a fundamental theory using bridge principles. | | The Duhem-Quine thesis argues for methodological holism, which states that theories are never tested in isolation but as part of a whole web of beliefs. | The Duhem-Quine thesis argues for methodological holism, which states that theories are never tested in isolation but as part of a whole web of beliefs. |

1. Being human6 subtopics

2. Aesthetics3 subtopics

3. Epistemology3 subtopics

4. Ethics3 subtopics

5. Philosophy of religion3 subtopics

6. Philosophy of science3 subtopics

7. Political philosophy3 subtopics

8. Social philosophy3 subtopics

9. HL extension: Philosophy and contemporary issues3 subtopics

10. Prescribed philosophical texts12 subtopics

IB Philosophy 6.1.3 Methodologies of Science Flashcards