Solana is an emerging agricultural economy in Southeast Asia with a population of approximately $35$ million. While the country has successfully industrialized its urban centers, the rural regions remain heavily dependent on rice cultivation, which provides employment for nearly $40\%$ of the labor force. Rice is not only a dietary staple but also a culturally significant commodity. However, Solana's domestic rice farmers face significant pressure from large-scale exporters in neighboring countries, where production costs are lower due to favorable climates and advanced irrigation technologies.

In recent years, the Solanian government has prioritised food security and the protection of rural livelihoods. To achieve this, they have moved away from free trade in the rice sector. In $2023$, following a period of high import volumes that depressed local prices, the Ministry of Agriculture introduced a strict import quota on rice. This policy aimed to stabilize domestic prices and encourage local production, though it sparked debates regarding its impact on urban poverty and international trade relations.

The following tables provide data on Solana’s macroeconomic indicators and the domestic rice market.

Table 1: Selected Economic Data for Solana ($2022$–$2023$)

Table 2: Quarterly Domestic Rice Market Data in Solana

Table 3: Solana Rice Trade Policy Data ($2023$)

Note: Assume Solana is a small open economy and a price-taker in the global rice market.

Use the diagram below for the relevant part.

ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES IN YEMEN

Yemen, located on the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, has faced ongoing economic challenges compounded by prolonged conflict. The nation’s economy, once reliant on modest oil exports, agriculture, and fishing, has been severely disrupted by instability in production, trade, and investment. According to recent data from the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, GDP contracted by nearly 10% in 2020 alone, demonstrating the depth of the crisis. Inflation soared to over 20%, eroding real incomes for Yemenis across the socioeconomic spectrum. Many households now cope with severe shortages of essential goods, including food and clean water, leading to alarmingly high levels of poverty and malnutrition. Remittances from the Yemeni diaspora have become a critical source of foreign exchange, but currency volatility hampers local price stability.

The government’s fiscal capacity is constrained by reduced oil revenues, lower tax receipts, and high expenditures on humanitarian support. Although some external assistance (in the form of foreign aid) has helped fund vaccine campaigns and basic public services, it remains insufficient to cover the estimated US$4 billion annual humanitarian need. Consequently, the government has occasionally resorted to printing money domestically, contributing further to inflationary pressures. A major concern among policymakers is the poverty trap (or poverty cycle), wherein low incomes, poor nutrition, and limited access to education perpetuate underdevelopment and vulnerability across generations.

Despite these obstacles, Yemen has certain comparative advantages that could foster recovery. The agriculture sector could be revitalized if basic infrastructure, such as irrigation networks and roads, is restored. Small-scale horticulture and fishery exports—particularly coffee, honey, and seafood—have shown potential in past years. However, trade disruptions and high transportation costs reduce profitability. Moreover, foreign direct investment (FDI), which historically played a limited role in Yemen, has declined further due to insecurity and the perceived risk of capital loss. The private sector is mostly composed of micro and small enterprises with limited growth prospects, facing constrained access to credit and technology.

Yemeni policymakers, in collaboration with international organizations, have begun introducing targeted programs to mitigate immediate hardship. These include temporary subsidies on wheat and fuel to stabilize prices in urban areas, especially Sanaa and Aden. Meanwhile, limited deregulation measures aim to attract external investment and improve competition within domestic markets for essential goods. The Central Bank of Yemen, split between different de facto authorities, has struggled to maintain a unified exchange rate policy. Black-market currency trading exacerbates volatility in the value of the Yemeni rial.

Long-term development plans emphasize education, health, and restoring critical infrastructure to break the poverty cycle. Prior to the conflict, Yemen’s population grew rapidly, placing pressure on already strained social services. More recently, emigration has increased, with skilled workers leaving for better opportunities abroad. The loss of human capital poses a serious challenge to rebuilding the economy. Nevertheless, certain local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups have initiated small-scale projects to bolster agricultural productivity, vocational training, and women’s empowerment. Some local analysts argue these programs could serve as foundations for broader reconstruction efforts once a stable peace is achieved.

Maintaining the delicate balance between immediate humanitarian needs and long-term development continues to be a central dilemma for Yemen. While the country requires significant external interventions—both financial and technical—lasting recovery hinges on political stability and workable governance structures. Should peace efforts move forward, Yemen’s economy has the potential to rebound gradually, especially if vital infrastructure is rebuilt, the banking sector regains confidence, and robust institutions encourage investment. Until then, Yemen remains one of the world’s most pressing cases of conflict-induced economic and social decline, with millions of citizens heavily dependent on aid for mere survival.

Table 1: Yemen’s Selected Macroeconomic Indicators

Table 2: Yemen’s Social and Development Indicators

Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean with a long history of state-led economic policies and a continued trade embargo imposed by the United States since 1960. The Cuban economy is heavily dependent on two key sectors: sugar and tourism. Sugar has traditionally been Cuba’s largest export, accounting for over 70% of export revenues, although inefficiencies and outdated technology have constrained growth in output. Meanwhile, tourism has become an increasingly important source of foreign exchange, representing nearly 24% of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). However, environmental concerns have arisen from rapid growth in visitor arrivals, including water pollution and congestion in popular coastal areas.

Cuba’s real GDP grew modestly from 2021 to 2022, although high inflation and global supply chain disruptions presented serious challenges. The government has attempted some economic reforms, including allowing limited private enterprise and trying to attract modest amounts of foreign direct investment (FDI). Nevertheless, significant barriers to trade remain in place due to the decades-long embargo, as do restrictions on access to many imported goods.

The Cuban government operates a progressive tax system to finance public healthcare, education, and subsidized food programmes. Alongside this, it has announced a new subsidy plan to boost sugar production and modernize processing facilities. Policymakers hope that these measures will generate both export revenues and improved economic prospects.

Below are selected data from the Cuban economy:

Table 1: Key Macroeconomic Indicators for Cuba (2021–2022)

Table 2: Demand for Sugar in Cuba

Table 3: Tourism in Cuba

Table 4: Selected Cuban Tax Rates

Trade strategies and industrial development in Vietnam

For over two decades, Vietnam has controlled the entry of processed coffee products into its domestic market to support local roasters. Historically, this was achieved through strict quantity restrictions. However, in $2018$, following the signing of the EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (EVFTA), Vietnam shifted from rigid import quotas to a tariff-based system. An ad valorem tariff of $25\%$ was implemented on roasted and processed coffee imports from the European Union to prevent domestic roasters from being overwhelmed by high-end international brands. Since the quota removal, average coffee prices in urban markets have trended downwards. Despite this, urban middle-class consumers are lobbying the government to eliminate all tariffs to reduce the cost of premium international coffee blends further.

The lowest income households in Vietnam consume significantly more basic robusta coffee and basic food staples, whereas the wealthiest households consume higher quantities of expensive specialty arabica coffee. Rising global energy costs are currently pushing up production and transportation expenses, leading to an increase in the inflation rate. In response to the rising cost of living, the monthly minimum wage in major urban areas like Ho Chi Minh City was increased by $5.5\%$ to approximately \195$. Agriculture remains a critical pillar of the Vietnamese economy, providing livelihoods for nearly $34\%$ of the labour force. However, productivity in the Central Highlands is often limited by land fragmentation and inadequate storage facilities. Improvements in logistical infrastructure, particularly railways and deep-water ports, are seen as essential to lowering the cost of doing business and attracting industrial investment.

The Vietnam Coffee Development Strategy (VCDS) $2020$–$2030$ aims to increase the volume of high-value processed exports, enhance global competitiveness, and diversify into specialty markets. Vietnam is currently working to align its agricultural and processing standards with international certifications such as UTZ and Rainforest Alliance to comply with strict EU safety and quality regulations. The strategy encourages large-scale investment in technology-driven processing plants and supply chain digitisation to move up the value chain. To finance these public works and infrastructure projects, the government has introduced tax reforms, including higher progressive income tax rates for top earners and new environmental levies.

Table 1: Trade and Economic Data for Vietnam

Table 2: Wage and Export Data

Dominica is a small island economy in the Caribbean with a population of approximately $72000$ people. The country is heavily reliant on agriculture and tourism. Hurricanes and tropical storms frequently disrupt economic activity, causing significant damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and tourism facilities. Despite these challenges, Dominica’s government has introduced various strategies to improve economic growth and reduce poverty.

In recent years, Dominica has sought to diversify away from agriculture (particularly bananas), moving toward eco-tourism and financial services. However, agriculture still plays a vital role in the economy, especially in rural areas where employment opportunities outside farming are limited.

Table $1$ shows selected macroeconomic indicators for Dominica for $2021$ and $2022$:

*EC$ = Eastern Caribbean dollars

Table $2$ shows data on Dominica’s average monthly banana exports to a regional trading partner and estimated price elasticity of demand (PED) for bananas in that market from $2021$ to $2022$:

Dominica’s tax system consists of a value-added tax (VAT), corporate income tax, and personal income tax. Some taxes are progressive, helping to reduce income inequality. Table $3$ displays key features of Dominica’s tax rates (approximate) and Gini coefficient values before and after implementation of new social programs in $2022$:

Figure $1$ (hypothetical) shows a simplified Keynesian multiplier effect in Dominica following an increase in government spending in $2022$:

• Initial injection into the economy: EC$20$ million
• Estimated marginal propensity to consume (MPC): $0.8$

Government officials are debating policies to promote economic diversification, attract foreign direct investment, and reduce inequality.