Key Ideas
- Self-Awareness: Recognizing yourself as distinct from others. This usually develops in early childhood.
- Self-Concept: Understanding of one's self, including physical features, opinions, and capabilities.
- Identity Formation: Developing a proper sense of self.
- Self-Regulation: Regulating one's behaviour, e.g. impulse control.
Attachment
Attachment Theory
- Attachment is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.
- John Bowlby, the father of attachment theory, proposed that children are biologically predisposed to form attachments with caregivers as a means of survival.
- Parents should provide a secure base from which the child can explore the world.
- This includes reinforcing behaviour, validating emotions, and reflecting emotions.
Simons et al. (2014)
Aim
To investigate the correlation between childhood and romantic relationships in the future
Method
Recruited participants who were taking part in a different longitudinal study and examined their data.
Results
- Parenting style had some influence on the style of their children’s attachment in their romantic relationships as adults.
- A secure childhood attachment cultivated by supportive parenting was correlated with securely attached adult relationships.
- There was some evidence that poor attachment in childhood were correlated with aggression towards partners as adults.
Types of Attachment Styles
- Secure Attachment: Children feel safe and trust their caregiver to meet their needs.
- Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Children become independent and avoid seeking comfort from caregivers.
- Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment: Children are anxious and unsure whether their caregiver will meet their needs.
- Disorganized Attachment: Children display a lack of clear attachment behavior, often due to inconsistent or abusive caregiving.
Impact on Personality and Self-Concept
- Secure Attachment: Leads to higher self-esteem, better social skills, and healthier relationships.
- Insecure Attachment: Can result in low self-esteem, difficulties in trusting others, and challenges in emotional regulation.
Enculturation
- Enculturation is the process by which individuals learn and adopt the values, norms, and behaviors of their culture.
- It occurs through observation, imitation, and direct teaching from parents, teachers, peers, and the media.
- Social norms are unspoken rules in a certain culture. Conforming to them increases identification to that culture.
Enculturation shapes self-identity by influencing how individuals perceive themselves and their roles within society.
- In South Korea, the concept of Jeong is important.
- It includes valuing community and relationships.
- This is exemplified through sharing meals in school.
Critical Thinking
- To what extent is enculturation rigid?
- How do early childhood experiences shape our behaviour?
Enculturation and Self-Identity
- Role Models: Children learn cultural norms by observing parents, teachers, and peers.
- Language: Language shapes thought patterns and reinforces cultural values.
- Rituals and Traditions: Participation in cultural rituals fosters a sense of belonging and identity.
Markus & Kitayama (1991)
Aim
To see how cultural norms shape self-concept, cognition, emotion, and motivation
Method
Meta-analysis comparing individualistic cultures (USA) and collectivistic cultures (Japan)
Results
- Individualistic cultures led to an independent self-concept.
- Collectivistic cultures led to an interdependent self-concept.
Peer Influence
Social Learning Theory
- Albert Bandura's social learning theory posits that people learn behaviors by observing and imitating others.
- Peers become increasingly influential during adolescence as individuals seek acceptance and validation.
Mechanisms of Peer Influence
- Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.
- Peer Pressure: Direct or indirect encouragement to engage in specific behaviors.
- Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself in relation to others.
Santos et al. (2017)
Aim
To see how peers influence ethnic-racial identity.
Method
Longitudinal study comparing two schools, one predominantly Latinx and the other more culturally diverse
Results
- Centrality (using it as part of self-definition) was seen in the Latinx school.
- Private regard (emotional response to being in a peer group) was more prominent in the diverse school.
Positive and Negative Peer Influence
- Positive Influence: Peers can encourage prosocial behaviors, such as cooperation and empathy.
- Negative Influence: Peers may promote risky behaviors, such as substance abuse or bullying.
A teenager may start volunteering because their friends do, or they might skip school to fit in with a rebellious peer group.
Critical Thinking
- How may peer influence change across cultures (think individualistic vs. collectivistic)?
- How can peer influence be good? How can it be bad?
Childhood Experiences
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
- Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include trauma, abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.
- ACEs can have long-term effects on physical and mental health, as well as self-concept.
Felitti et al. (1998)
Aim
To examine the relationship between ACEs and health outcomes.
Method
Over 17,000 participants completed surveys about childhood experiences and current health.
Results
Higher ACE scores were linked to increased risk of chronic diseases, mental health issues, and substance abuse.
Positive Childhood Experiences
- Supportive relationships, stability, and positive reinforcement contribute to healthy self-development.
- Positive experiences foster resilience, self-esteem, and emotional regulation through social learning.
- What is the difference between how parents and peers may influence identity?
- What is something from your culture that is specific to it?
- How can insecure attachment in childhood affect adult relationships?
