IB History Japanese Domestic Issues: Political and Economic Issues, and Their Impact on Foreign Relations Notes

Taisho Democracy and the Meiji Political System

1. The Meiji Constitution (1889) created a parliament (Diet) but gave the Emperor supreme authority. The military reported directly to the Emperor, not to elected politicians.
2. The Taisho period (1912-1926) saw a brief experiment with parliamentary democracy. Party cabinets governed from 1918 to 1932, and universal male suffrage was introduced in 1925.
3. However, Taisho Democracy had critical weaknesses: the Privy Council, House of Peers, and military chiefs could all bypass the elected Diet. The Emperor remained the ultimate authority.
4. Political parties were closely linked to the zaibatsu (giant industrial conglomerates like Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo). This created public perception that politicians served big business, not ordinary people.
5. Corruption scandals plagued party politics. The two main parties, the Seiyukai and Minseito, were seen as self-serving and out of touch with rural poverty.
6. The Peace Preservation Law (1925) was passed alongside universal suffrage, criminalising any movement that threatened the kokutai (national polity/Emperor system). It was used to suppress communists, socialists, and liberals.
7. A crucial constitutional flaw: the right of supreme command (tosui-ken) meant the army and navy reported to the Emperor, not the Prime Minister. Military leaders could veto cabinets by refusing to appoint a War or Navy Minister.

Interwar Treaties and Foreign Policy

1. The Washington Naval Conference (1921-22) established a 5:5:3 ratio for capital ships (US:Britain:Japan). Japan's military saw the 60% ratio as humiliating.
2. The Four-Power Treaty (1922) ended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The Nine-Power Treaty required Japan to respect China's independence and borders.
3. Shidehara Diplomacy (named after Foreign Minister Kijuro Shidehara) promoted negotiation over military action in the 1920s, working within international frameworks.
4. In 1927, the government adopted the Positive Policy toward China, treating Manchuria as a special case separate from the rest of China.

The Rise of Militarism and Ultra-nationalism

1. The Japanese military had enormous prestige from victories in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). The army saw itself as the guardian of the nation.
2. Ultra-nationalist groups like the Kodoha (Imperial Way Faction) believed Japan's destiny was to lead Asia and purge Western influence. They glorified the Emperor, bushido (warrior code), and self-sacrifice.
3. The concept of kokutai (national polity) held that the Emperor was divine and Japan had a unique spiritual mission. Challenging this was treasonous.
4. Military officers despised what they saw as the corruption and weakness of party politicians. Young officers from rural backgrounds particularly resented the zaibatsu-politician alliance that ignored rural suffering.
5. Influential thinkers like Kita Ikki advocated a military-led revolution to redistribute wealth and establish Japan as the leader of Asia. His book An Outline Plan for the Reorganization of Japan (1919) inspired many radical officers.
6. The London Naval Treaty (1930) limited Japan's navy to a ratio of 10:10:7 compared to Britain and the US. Nationalists and the navy were furious, seeing it as a humiliating concession by weak politicians.