IB History Japanese Domestic Issues: Political and Economic Issues, and Their Impact on Foreign Relations Notes

Taisho Democracy and the Meiji Political System

1. The Meiji Constitution (1889) created a parliament (Diet) but gave the Emperor supreme authority. The military reported directly to the Emperor, not to elected politicians.
2. The Taisho period (1912-1926) saw a brief experiment with parliamentary democracy. Party cabinets governed from 1918 to 1932, and universal male suffrage was introduced in 1925.
3. However, Taisho Democracy had critical weaknesses: the Privy Council, House of Peers, and military chiefs could all bypass the elected Diet. The Emperor remained the ultimate authority.
4. Political parties were closely linked to the zaibatsu (giant industrial conglomerates like Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo). This created public perception that politicians served big business, not ordinary people.
5. Corruption scandals plagued party politics. The two main parties, the Seiyukai and Minseito, were seen as self-serving and out of touch with rural poverty.
6. The Peace Preservation Law (1925) was passed alongside universal suffrage, criminalising any movement that threatened the kokutai (national polity/Emperor system). It was used to suppress communists, socialists, and liberals.
7. A crucial constitutional flaw: the right of supreme command (tosui-ken) meant the army and navy reported to the Emperor, not the Prime Minister. Military leaders could veto cabinets by refusing to appoint a War or Navy Minister.

Interwar Treaties and Foreign Policy

1. The Washington Naval Conference (1921-22) established a 5:5:3 ratio for capital ships (US:Britain:Japan). Japan's military saw the 60% ratio as humiliating.
2. The Four-Power Treaty (1922) ended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The Nine-Power Treaty required Japan to respect China's independence and borders.
3. Shidehara Diplomacy (named after Foreign Minister Kijuro Shidehara) promoted negotiation over military action in the 1920s, working within international frameworks.
4. In 1927, the government adopted the Positive Policy toward China, treating Manchuria as a special case separate from the rest of China.

The Rise of Militarism and Ultra-nationalism

1. The Japanese military had enormous prestige from victories in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). The army saw itself as the guardian of the nation.
2. Ultra-nationalist groups like the Kodoha (Imperial Way Faction) believed Japan's destiny was to lead Asia and purge Western influence. They glorified the Emperor, bushido (warrior code), and self-sacrifice.
3. The concept of kokutai (national polity) held that the Emperor was divine and Japan had a unique spiritual mission. Challenging this was treasonous.
4. Military officers despised what they saw as the corruption and weakness of party politicians. Young officers from rural backgrounds particularly resented the zaibatsu-politician alliance that ignored rural suffering.
5. Influential thinkers like Kita Ikki advocated a military-led revolution to redistribute wealth and establish Japan as the leader of Asia. His book An Outline Plan for the Reorganization of Japan (1919) inspired many radical officers.
6. The London Naval Treaty (1930) limited Japan's navy to a ratio of 10:10:7 compared to Britain and the US. Nationalists and the navy were furious, seeing it as a humiliating concession by weak politicians.

The Showa Restoration and Military Factions

1. Conservative ultranationalists called for a Showa Restoration, wanting Emperor Hirohito to rule directly without parliament, ministers, Privy Council, or zaibatsu.
2. Rural farmers suffering from the Depression joined the growing military. Once in the army, they supported young ultranationalist officers who shared their views.
3. The Tosei-ha (Control Faction) wanted to ally with zaibatsu and government officials, suppress political parties, and prepare for total war with China.
4. The Kodoha (Imperial Way Faction) wanted complete destruction of all political parties, the zaibatsu, and the government. They wanted direct rule from the Emperor.
5. Radical factions attempted multiple coups: March Incident (1931, Sakurakai), October Incident (1931, Sakurakai), League of Blood Incident (1932) - killed a Mitsui zaibatsu leader and a former finance minister.

The Impact of the Great Depression on Japan

Economic Cycles Before the Depression

1. WWI brought prosperity: cotton textile exports rose 185% between 1914 and 1918. But the post-war recession of 1920 caused millions to become unemployed.
2. The 1923 Tokyo earthquake destroyed much of the capital. The government encouraged banks to lend at low interest for rebuilding.
3. In 1927, a banking crisis hit when banks could not recover earthquake loans. Banks that survived stopped lending, causing economic contraction.
4. Japan's GNP declined approximately 20% between 1929 and 1931. Stocks on the Tokyo Stock Market lost half their value. 50% of small businesses closed permanently.
5. Agricultural prices declined 45% between 1929 and 1931. Farm income for landowners fell from 1598 yen (1926) to 641 yen (1931).
6. The Wall Street Crash (1929) hit Japan's export-dependent economy severely. The US was Japan's largest trading partner, buying 40% of Japan's silk exports.
7. Silk prices collapsed by 65% between 1929 and 1931. Since approximately 2.2 million farming households relied on silk production, rural Japan was devastated.
8. Overall exports fell by 50% between 1929 and 1931. Industrial production dropped sharply and unemployment rose to over 3 million by 1930.
9. Reports emerged of families selling daughters into servitude and children going hungry in rural areas. This rural crisis radicalised young army officers, many of whom came from farming backgrounds.
10. Western nations raised tariffs (e.g. the US Smoot-Hawley Tariff, 1930), closing off markets Japan desperately needed. This strengthened the argument for economic autarky through territorial expansion.
11. Japan lacked key raw materials: it imported 80% of its oil, 90% of its iron, and most of its rubber and tin. Manchuria, rich in coal, iron, and agricultural land, became an obvious target.

Political Assassinations and the End of Party Government (1930-1936)

1. Over 1000 communists and socialists were arrested in 1928 under the Peace Preservation Law after left-wing parties won 8 Diet seats.
2. In November 1930, Prime Minister Hamaguchi Osachi was shot by an ultra-nationalist for ratifying the London Naval Treaty. He died of his wounds in 1931.
3. In May 1932, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated by young naval officers for opposing the army's actions in Manchuria. This effectively ended party government in Japan.
4. The assassins at Inukai's trial received lenient sentences and were treated as patriots. Over 110,000 petitions for clemency were submitted, some written in blood. This revealed the depth of public sympathy for the military.
5. After Inukai, Japan was governed by "national unity" cabinets led by admirals, bureaucrats, or military-approved figures. No party leader served as PM again until after 1945.
6. Between 1932 and December 1941, Japan had 9 different prime ministers. 6 of these were admirals or generals from the armed forces.
7. The February 26 Incident (1936) saw 1,400 Kodoha troops seize central Tokyo, killing several ministers. Though the coup failed, the army used it to demand greater control, and the Tosei-ha (Control Faction) consolidated power.
8. After the February 26 Incident, the Tosei-ha (backed by the Emperor, Privy Council, cabinet, Diet, and zaibatsu) took control mainly out of fear of the more radical Kodoha.
9. After 1936, the military could veto any cabinet by withholding a War Minister. The Army Minister had to be an active-duty officer, giving the military an effective veto over civilian government.

Economic Autarky and the Push for Empire

1. Japan's population grew from 56 million in 1920 to 73 million by 1940, increasing demand for food and resources that the home islands could not provide.
2. The military argued that Japan needed a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" to secure raw materials, markets, and living space, free from dependence on Western-controlled trade.
3. Manchuria provided coal, iron ore, and soybean exports. By 1937, Japan had invested over 2 billion yen in Manchukuo's infrastructure, mines, and industry.
4. Military spending rose dramatically: by 1936, defence accounted for nearly 47% of the national budget, compared to 28% in 1931. This militarised the economy and society.
5. Finance Minister Takahashi Korekiyo had used deficit spending to recover from the Depression by 1933, but when he tried to cut military spending, he was assassinated in the February 26 Incident (1936).
6. The Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) with Germany (and later Italy in 1937) signalled Japan's alignment with fascist powers and its rejection of the post-WWI international order.

Japan's Foreign Policy Toward China

1. The Kwantung Army, Japan's elite military unit stationed in the Liaodong Peninsula, operated increasingly independently from civilian government.
2. In 1928, Kwantung Army officers assassinated Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin, hoping to destabilise Manchuria and justify a Japanese takeover. The government was unable to punish the insubordinate officers.
3. After Zhang's assassination, his son allied with the KMT, bringing Manchuria into a newly united China under Chiang Kai-shek, threatening Japan's interests.
4. The government decided to replace the Kwantung Army's leadership to bring it under control. Hours before the new general took charge, the Manchurian Incident occurred.

Historiography, Source Analysis, and Exam Preparation

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