WW1 Europe: Practices of War and the Impact on the Outcome Notes

Key Questions

1. Which alliance had the strongest armed forces at the outbreak of the war?
2. Why did the war development into a stalemate?
3. To what extent did technological developments break this stalemate?
4. What was the role of the mobilisation of human and economic resources on the outcome of the war?

The Combatants of the War

1. Central Powers (1914)

Population & Army Strength

1. Total population: 115 million people across member states.
2. Initial mobilisation (1914):
   1. 146 army divisions (1.4 million soldiers in the field at the start of the war).
3. German Army strengths:
   1. Advanced system of command and control, faster orders, more flexibility in troop deployment.
   2. Could rapidly reposition forces between different fronts because of internal lines of communication and geographic adjacency between allies.
   3. Close cooperation between Germany and Austria-Hungary allowed coordinated military operations.

Total Mobilization During the War

1. Germany: 11 million soldiers mobilized over the course of the war.
2. Austria-Hungary: 7.8 million soldiers.
3. Ottoman Empire (Turkey): 2.9 million soldiers.
4. Bulgaria: 1.2 million soldiers.

Naval Strength

1. German High Seas Fleet:
   1. 14 Dreadnought-class battleships (modern capital ships).
   2. 22 older battleships still in service.
   3. Advanced artillery fire control systems and communication technology for better accuracy and coordination.
2. Naval strategy allowed concentration of forces in the North Sea, as Germany had relatively few colonies to defend compared to Britain.

2. Allied Powers (1914)

Population & Army Strength

1. Combined population (France, Russia, Britain): ~265 million.
2. Initial mobilization (1914):
   1. 212 army divisions (2.8 million soldiers in the field).
3. Army composition:
   1. Russia & France: conscript armies, large numbers but varying quality.
   2. Britain: volunteer army in 1914, smaller in size but highly professional.

Limitations & Challenges

1. Russia:
   1. Serious shortages of weapons, ammunition, and equipment.
   2. Many soldiers lacked basic gear (e.g., some sent to the front without rifles initially).
   3. Out-dated command, communication, and control systems made coordination slow and ineffective.
2. France:
   1. Well-equipped and organised but geographically distant from Russia, making joint operations with their ally slow and difficult.
3. Britain:
   1. Small standing army in 1914 but could draw on vast manpower from the empire.
   2. For example:
      1. Canada: 6,000 soldiers in August 1914 → 500,000 sent overseas by 1918.

British Royal Navy (1914)

1. Maintained a modified two-power standard, meaning its navy was meant to be at least as strong as the next two largest navies combined.
2. Fleet size at outbreak of war:
   1. 20 Dreadnought-class battleships.
   2. 39 older battleships.
3. Responsibilities:
   1. Protecting an extensive global empire and colonial trade routes.
   2. Ensuring safe shipping lanes for vital imports of food and raw materials (Britain was not self-sufficient).
4. Strategic advantage:
   1. Alliance with France allowed French naval forces to patrol the Mediterranean.
   2. This freed the Royal Navy to focus on the North Sea and confront the German High Seas Fleet directly.

Total Mobilization During the War

1. All Allied Powers combined: 42 million soldiers.
   1. Russia: 12 million.
   2. France: 8.4 million.
   3. Britain & Empire: 8.9 million.
   4. Italy: 5.6 million.

3. United States (Joined 1917)

Army Strength

1. April 1917: 200,000 soldiers (including National Guard).
2. Selective Service Act (1917) introduced conscription, leading to rapid growth.
3. Mobilised 4.3 million soldiers during just 19 months of active involvement.

Naval Strength

1. 1914 fleet included:
   1. 10 Dreadnought-class battleships.
   2. 23 older battleships.
2. Naval Expansion Act (1916): planned to double the size of the US Navy over several years.

Strategic Developments of the War

1. Opening Moves (July–August 1914)

Collapse of Diplomacy

1. Late July 1914: Final diplomatic efforts to prevent war failed.
2. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand a month earlier had already triggered a chain of ultimatums and military preparations.
3. 1 August 1914: Germany declared war on Russia, referred to as throwing the “iron dice”, marking a decisive step into all-out war.

Leaders’ Perspective

1. Political and military leaders claimed they were reacting to unavoidable circumstances rather than initiating war.
2. Kaiser Wilhelm II insisted that “the sword had been forced into Germany’s hand.”
3. Once Germany acted, the alliance system, national interests, and mobilisation timetables pushed Europe into war with unstoppable momentum.

Armies on the Move

1. All major powers began moving troops toward their respective frontiers.
2. Railways allowed for rapid initial troop movements, but trains could only take armies so far, men and horses had to continue on foot.
3. France: Rushed the bulk of its forces east toward Alsace-Lorraine.
4. Britain: Landed the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France and moved south-east toward the Belgian frontier.
5. Germany: Sent over 1 million soldiers west, initiating the Schlieffen Plan, which aimed to capture Paris in 41 days.
6. Large-scale engagements would take around two weeks to begin due to the slow pace of marching armies.

2. Belgium and the Schlieffen Plan

Belgium’s Strategic Position

1. The right wing of the German army was to sweep through Belgium on its way to Paris.
2. Belgium’s army was small compared to the major powers but had invested heavily in fortified defences, especially around Liège.
3. These forts controlled the most accessible invasion route from Germany into France.

German Assault on Liège

1. German Second Army: Over 300,000 soldiers advanced on Liège.
2. Belgian Defenders: About 70,000 troops manned 12 forts.
3. The Germans captured the city quickly, aided by Zeppelin bombing raids, one of the first uses of aerial bombardment in history.

Siege of the Forts

1. To destroy the forts, Germany deployed massive siege howitzers, including the famous “Big Bertha”:
   1. Calibre: 420 mm
   2. Shell weight: 770 kg
   3. Range: 12 km
2. Within 11 days, all forts had fallen, leaving Belgium open for the continuation of the Schlieffen Plan.

3. The Battle of the Frontiers (August 1914)

French Plan XVII in Action

1. Plan XVII: French strategy to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine, lost in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).
2. Based on the doctrine of the offensive, boldness, élan (fighting spirit), and rapid attack.
3. 7 August 1914: French launched operations to retake Mulhouse in Alsace.
4. 14 August 1914: Main French offensive into Lorraine began, initially pushing Germans back and retaking towns such as Mulhouse.

German Counteroffensive

1. French advance was uneven, leaving gaps between units.
2. 20 August: German Sixth and Seventh Armies launched counteroffensives, exploiting these gaps.
3. Heavy fighting occurred in multiple areas, including:
   1. Sambre River
   2. Ardennes region
4. By 24 August, French forces had been decisively defeated and their advance halted.

Outcome of the Battle of the Frontiers

1. Plan XVII failed completely.
2. French losses: ~200,000 casualties (including 75,000 dead).
   1. 22 August: 25,000 French soldiers killed in a single day, one of the deadliest in French military history.
3. German success at this stage suggested the Schlieffen Plan was working as intended.

4. The Battle of the Marne (5–12 September 1914)

German Advance and the Great Retreat

1. After defeating Belgian resistance and halting the BEF at Mons, German armies continued their sweep through Belgium and northern France.
2. The BEF and French armies conducted a Great Retreat toward Paris.
3. However, German forces became overextended:
   1. Supply lines grew longer.
   2. More troops had to be diverted to protect these lines.
   3. Overall fighting strength weakened as they advanced.

Paris Prepares for Defence

1. Belgian resistance bought time for Paris’ military governor, General Gallieni, to assemble a defensive force.
2. Aerial reconnaissance spotted the German First Army wheeling in front of Paris, rather than around it, exposing its right flank to the French Sixth Army.

French and British Counterattack

1. General Joffre ordered the Sixth Army to strike the exposed German flank.
2. General von Kluck, commanding the German First Army, turned to face the attack, creating a 50 km gap between the German First and Second Armies.
3. Joffre urged the BEF and French Fifth Army to drive into the gap, cutting the German advance in two.

Collapse of the Schlieffen Plan

1. Fighting between 5–12 September stopped the German advance.
2. 9 September: German Chief of Staff von Moltke, hampered by poor communications and an incomplete picture of events, ordered a withdrawal to defensive positions 65 km to the rear.
3. The failure to capture Paris within 41 days meant the Schlieffen Plan had failed.

5. The Race to the Sea (September–October 1914)

Attempt to Outflank the Enemy

1. Both sides tried to outflank each other’s northern wing in order to threaten encirclement.
2. French and British forces moved north and west; Germans countered in the same direction.

Extension of the Front

1. Series of attack, counterattack, and entrenchment moves gradually extended the fighting line.
2. By late October, the front stretched:
   1. 700 km from the Swiss Alps to the English Channel.
   2. Continuous trench systems were forming.
3. The war on the Western Front would now be defined by stalemate and trench warfare.
4. The Schlieffen Plan’s failure condemned both sides to a long war of attrition.

6. Overview of Trench Warfare

Nature of the Stalemate

1. Western Front became a massive, complex system of entrenchments.
2. Defensive technologies were generally stronger than offensive ones for most of the war.
3. Advantage favoured the Germans, who were defending captured territory from August–September 1914.

Defensive Technology

1. Relied heavily on the shovel and barbed wire, later reinforced with concrete.
2. The machine gun was particularly effective early in the war for defence.
3. Additional defensive/attack technologies included:
   1. Flamethrowers
   2. Trench mortars
   3. Poison gas
   4. Mines
   5. Tanks (the only one with real potential to breach defences)

Strategic Limitations

1. Traditional strategies (feints, outflanking, encirclement) required mobility, which trenches eliminated.
2. Continuous front from the Alps to the Channel made flanking impossible.
3. Aircraft technology was insufficient for moving troops over the lines.
4. Amphibious landings were highly dangerous and logistically complex.
5. Breaking through enemy lines became the only viable option for both sides.

7. The Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915)

Introduction of Poison Gas

1. First use of poison gas in the west by Germans.
2. 22 April 1915: 170 tonnes of chlorine gas released in the Ypres sector.
3. Targeted French colonial troops; caused 10,000 Allied casualties within minutes.
4. Created a large gap in Allied lines, exploited only to a depth of 3 km.

Canadian Resistance

1. Second gas attack (24 April) targeted newly arrived Canadian troops.
2. Canadians used improvised gas masks; gave some ground but blunted the attack.
3. Suffered 6,000 casualties (including 1,000 dead), nearly the entire peacetime Canadian army.

Outcome

1. Germans halted offensive on 24 May 1915.
2. Germans took key high ground north and east of Ypres, shrinking the salient.
3. Ypres and a 5 km × 8 km pocket around it remained in Allied control.
4. Casualties:
   1. Allies: 70,000
   2. Germans: 5,000

8. The Battle of Verdun (February–October 1916)

German Strategy & Objectives

1. Planned by German Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn.
2. Aim: attack with such ferocity that the French could not surrender, instead forcing them to “bleed white” through massive casualties.
3. Operation codename: Operation Judgment.
4. Resources:
   1. 8 divisions plus reserves along a 13 km front.
   2. 1,200 artillery pieces, including massive siege guns used in Belgium in 1914.
   3. 2.5 million shells stockpiled.

Opening of the Battle

1. Attack postponed due to weather, allowing French to reinforce.
2. Began on 21 February 1916 with a devastating artillery bombardment – 100,000 shells per hour.
3. Plan: advance cautiously to maximise enemy casualties rather than seize territory.

French Defence

1. Led by General Pétain, who adopted the doctrine of active defence – contest every metre, counterattack later.
2. Terrain: ring of forts and hills around Verdun became the focus.
3. Village of Vaux changed hands 13 times in March 1916.
4. Single supply road into Verdun (the “Sacred Way”) remained open.

Outcome

1. From April, Germans attacked along the whole front, drawing themselves into a battle of attrition.
2. By June: German casualties equalled French, around 200,000 each.
3. Fighting lasted until December; both sides lost 350,000 men each.

9. The Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916)

Allied Strategy & Build-up

1. Aim: breach German lines with massive artillery bombardment followed by infantry waves and cavalry exploitation.
2. Target area: central sector from Verdun to Amiens, most suited for large offensives.
3. British and French planned a joint attack along the Somme River.
4. British “New Army” had grown to nearly 2 million men.

Logistics & Resources

1. Construction of 17 new railheads.
2. 1,500 artillery pieces and 3 million shells.
3. 11,200 km of buried telephone cable and 69,000 km above ground.
4. Thousands of carrier pigeons.
5. 100,000 horses, accommodation for 400,000 men, and 300 water trucks.

Battle Plan

1. Week-long bombardment to destroy German barbed wire and artillery.
2. Massive mines planted 18 m under German lines detonated at start.
3. Infantry advance behind a creeping barrage.
4. General Haig expected an 11 km advance on Day 1; General Rawlinson predicted a smaller gain.

Problems & Reality

1. Date moved forward to 1 July 1916 to relieve pressure on Verdun.
2. Bombardment failed to cut barbed wire; creeping barrage moved too fast.
3. German dugouts survived, and machine gunners emerged to mow down advancing troops.
4. Some penetrations occurred, but most attackers were stopped in no man’s land.
5. Casualties on Day 1: 60,000 British (20,000 dead) out of 100,000 attackers – the worst single day in British military history.

Outcome

1. Fighting continued until November.
2. Furthest British advance: 12 km.
3. Casualties:
   1. British: 420,000
   2. French: 194,000
   3. German: 500,000

10. Passchendaele (July–November 1917)

Context Before the Battle

1. By mid-1917, the Allies were approaching exhaustion:
   1. Russian Army was collapsing under the strain of prolonged warfare.
   2. Russian Provisional Government, in power since the tsar’s February abdication, was faltering.
   3. French Army morale was critically low, fifty divisions in the trenches mutinied, refusing to continue perceived futile assaults.
   4. Italian Army, weakened from fighting, barely halted the Austro-German advance at Caporetto, just short of Venice.
2. The burden of continued offensive operations increasingly fell on the British Army.

Battle Strategy and Implementation

1. The British offensive strategy at Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres) was similar in concept to the Somme but with important changes:
   1. Objective no longer a decisive breakthrough, but a deliberate, stepwise advance.
   2. Launching advancement after a prolonged, intensified artillery barrage:
      1. Duration twice as long as Somme's,
      2. Double the gun numbers,
      3. Fourfold shell volume,
      4. Directed along a narrow front, offered attackers little element of surprise.
   3. Tanks made an initial effective impact on the comparatively dry “no man’s land.”

Environmental Challenges and Stalemate

1. Torrential rains transformed the battlefield:
   1. The terrain became deep, muddy quagmire, treacherous and immobilizing.
   2. Tanks bogged down; artillery and infantry became nearly immobile.

Resumed Fighting and Attritional Warfare

1. September saw limited local gains by British forces:
   1. Haig attempted to push toward Passchendaele village.
   2. A grim "stalemate within a stalemate" emerged:
      1. British bombarded and captured ground, only for Germans to recapture it.
2. By late September, British troops were completely exhausted.

Final Push and Capture

1. Haig dispatched Australian and New Zealand forces, but with limited success.
2. On 26 October, the Canadian Corps entered the line.
3. By 6 November, they captured the battered village of Passchendaele.

Casualties and Consequences

1. Allied losses: approximately 270,000 (disputed figures).
2. German losses: approximately 200,000 defending the area.
3. The battle underscored the brutal efficiency of trench warfare, attrition over advancement, and the limits of human endurance in 1917’s muddy hellcorners.

11. 1918 - The end of the war

1. Both armies were exhausted after years of trench warfare.
2. German hopes:
   1. Fresh troops arriving from the now-defunct Russian front.
   2. Chance to break the stalemate before US military buildup could fully take effect.
3. Allied hopes:
   1. Large influx of American soldiers:
      1. 300,000 by March 1918.
      2. Over 1 million expected by summer.
4. German strategic dilemma:
   1. Knew their economy and society could not outlast US industrial power.
   2. 1918 seen as a race to knock Britain out and force France into negotiations before US strength became overwhelming.

German Spring Offensive (March 1918)

1. Began 21 March against British lines.
2. Relied on new tactics requiring speed:
   1. 3-hour artillery barrage to weaken defences.
   2. Storm troopers advanced quickly, bypassing strongpoints to strike deep into rear areas.
   3. Traditional infantry mopped up bypassed positions.
3. Day one results:
   1. 7,000 British soldiers killed.
   2. Over 20,000 British soldiers captured.
   3. Germans suffered 39,000 casualties, heavy losses for limited reserves.
4. Outcome:
   1. German forces advanced close to Amiens (within 8 km).
   2. Failed to achieve strategic objectives:
      1. Did not roll up British line.
      2. Did not seize Channel ports.
      3. Did not split British and French forces.
   3. Offensive stalled; Germans lost 250,000 troops they could not replace.
   4. Allied losses similar but offset by steady arrival of US reinforcements.
   5. The "race" to win before US mobilisation was lost.

Allied Counter-Offensive (August–November 1918)

1. 8 August – Battle of Amiens:
   1. Coordinated use of tanks, artillery, infantry, and air power on an unprecedented scale.
   2. German General Ludendorff called it “The black day of the German army.”
2. Marked the start of The Hundred Days Offensive:
   1. Continuous Allied advances pushed German forces steadily back toward 1914 positions.
   2. German army, monarchy, and government recognised the war was unwinnable.
3. Armistice:
   1. Germans requested an armistice.
   2. Fighting officially ended 11:00 am, 11 November 1918.

11. The War on the Eastern Front

Schlieffen Plan Miscalculation

1. Unexpected Russian advance: Contrary to Schlieffen’s assumption of slow mobilization, Russia’s First Army, led by General Rennenkampf, invaded East Prussia earlier than expected.
2. While successful in the east in late August and early September 1914, the Western Front campaign unraveled at the Marne.

Russian Invasions and German Counterplay

1. Russia invaded Germany with two armies, significantly outnumbering German defenders.
2. At the Battle of Gumbinnen (20 August 1914), the Germans suffered a severe setback.
3. German reorganization elevated Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff, who capitalized on deep friction between Russian commanders (Samsonov vs. Rennenkampf).
4. Germans leveraged rail mobility and defeated the armies separately:
   1. Battle of Tannenberg: Encircled and destroyed the Second Army; General Samsonov reportedly committed suicide after the defeat.
   2. Battle of the Masurian Lakes: Hindenburg’s forces pushed Rennenkampf back, inflicting 95,000 casualties and preventing encirclement.

Eastern Front Dynamics

1. The Eastern Front’s vast terrain prolonged mobile warfare far longer than in the trench-bound Western Front.
2. Post-Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes, the Russians reorganized and resumed offensives.
3. Austria-Hungary faltered while Russia briefly threatened Hungary in autumn 1914, though this never materialized into success.
4. Stalemate eventually set in, though with more fluid movement than in France and Belgium.

Russian Success and Italian Diversion

1. Italy’s 1915 entry on the Allied side forced Austria-Hungary to redeploy troops southward.
2. General Brusilov launched a major offensive, recapturing nearly 100 miles of territory lost previously under Austrian control.

The Gallipoli Campaign

1. Perpetual stalemate in France prompted the Allies to open a new front.
2. Initial plan: naval operation through the Dardanelles using older French and British battleships and mine sweepers.
   1. The fleet was quickly reduced by Turkish mobile artillery and forced to retreat.
   2. Led to the decision to land troops.
3. Landings (April 1915):
   1. 25 April: British troops landed on the southern Gallipoli Peninsula.
   2. 29 April: ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand Army Corps) troops followed.
   3. Both forces secured small beachheads and nearby hills.
4. Campaign failures:
   1. Stalled due to poor intelligence, rough terrain, navigation errors, and Turkish leadership under Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk).
   2. A third landing at Suvla Bay only created another unsustainable stronghold.
5. Evacuation (Dec 1915 – Jan 1916):
   1. Allies withdrew all forces between 28 December 1915 and 6 January 1916.
   2. The evacuation was remarkably well-executed despite the broader campaign’s failure.
   3. Casualties: Allies ~300,000; Turks ~250,000.

Aftermath of the Eastern Campaigns

1. The war continued to aggravate economic and social strains, particularly within the Russian Empire.
2. These pressures sparked the Russian Revolution of 1917.
3. Russia ultimately signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, exiting the war and changing the Eastern Front’s dynamics.

12. The War at Sea

1. The naval arms race between Germany and Britain was a leading long-term cause of WWI, yet their major fleets only met once, at Jutland in 1916.

German Naval Disadvantages

1. Numerical inferiority
   1. At Jutland, the Royal Navy had 31 Dreadnoughts, while Germany had 18.
   2. Battle cruisers: Britain held a 2:1 advantage.
   3. Overall, Britain enjoyed a 1.6:1 superiority in ship numbers across all other vessels.
2. Geographic constraints
   1. Germany’s access to vital shipping lanes was limited by British-controlled chokepoints:
      1. The English Channel (34 km at its narrowest).
      2. The North Sea between Norway and Scotland.
   2. These limitations severely hampered Germany’s ability to wage economic warfare via naval operations.

German Naval Strategy (1914–1915)

1. Adopted a "hit-and-run" approach:
   1. Fleets would sortie briefly and attack the British advance guard, then retreat before the Royal Navy's main strength could arrive.
2. Notable skirmishes:
   1. Battle of Heligoland Bight (1914) – an early naval clash with limited results.
   2. Battle of Dogger Bank (1915) – another engagement where Germany inflicted some damage but retreated.

The Battle of Jutland (May 1916)

1. Under Admiral Reinhard Scheer, the German High Seas Fleet sought decisive engagement.
2. Britain's decryption of German naval codes enabled the Royal Navy to prepare in advance.
3. The resulting clash at Jutland became the largest naval battle in history, with both sides claiming victory.
4. German fleet achieved more effective firepower due to:
   1. Better battle communications.
   2. Safer ammunition and propellant storage.
5. Nonetheless, fearing further losses, Germany withdrew and never again deployed its fleet, leaving Britain dominant in the North Sea for the rest of the war.

The Home Front: Mobilizing for Total War

1. Total War and Resource Mobilization

1. WWI exemplified total war, with mobilization of industrial, financial, agricultural, educational, cultural, and human resources.
2. Civilians were deeply involved in supporting their nations’ war companies, blurring the line between combatant and citizen.

2. Government Control and Economic Coordination

1. Governments across the major powers established institutions to manage wartime economies and daily life:
   1. Canada: Munitions Resources Commission
   2. USA: War Industries Board
   3. Britain: Defence of the Realm Act
   4. Canada: War Measures Act
   5. Germany: Auxiliary Services Act
2. These allowed direct government control over production, labor, and private life.

3. Industrial and Agricultural Output

1. Production soared but prioritized military necessity over civilian needs:
   1. Germany maintained high steel and coal production but consumer goods and food became scarce.
   2. Britain and France depended significantly on imports from the U.S., Canada, and Australia.
2. The workforce shifted dramatically:
   1. A substantial portion of France (20%) and Germany (18%) was mobilized for military service.
   2. In Britain, over 1.5 million women filled non-traditional roles in factories, docks, and farms.

4. Rationing and Domestic Economies

1. Food, clothing, and other essentials were rationed as supply prioritized military use.
2. Civilians lived with shortages and had to make do with reduced goods and increased economizing during the war.

5. Economic Warfare

1. Britain’s naval blockade choked off German imports, contributing to severe civilian malnutrition and deprivation.
2. German U-boats targeted Allied shipping, sinking millions of tons of material and threatening Britain’s food and supply lines.
3. Zeppelin and Gotha bomber raids on British cities caused civilian casualties (nearly 5,000) but did not substantially impair production.

The Impact of technological developments

1. Aircraft in WWI

Early Use and Rapid Advancement

1. At the start of the war, aircraft were seen mainly as reconnaissance tools to gather intelligence.
2. Early planes were fragile, made from canvas and wood with a small engine, fuel tank, and open cockpit.
3. Technological progress was extremely rapid, new designs could appear within weeks.
4. Aircraft roles quickly expanded to include:
   1. Air-to-air combat (to deny enemy reconnaissance)
   2. Artillery spotting for more accurate bombardment
   3. Direct ground support with aerial gunfire

Fighters

1. Designed for speed, manoeuvrability, and firepower.
2. Key innovations:
   1. Interrupter gear: allowed forward-firing machine guns without damaging the propeller.
   2. Triplanes (e.g., the Fokker Dr.I): harder to fly but much more agile than biplanes.
3. Roles included:
   1. Destroying enemy reconnaissance aircraft and balloons.
   2. Escorting and protecting bombers.
   3. Providing close air support for infantry.

Bombers

1. Fewer bomber models existed compared to fighters.
2. Improvements focused on longer range and greater bomb payload.
3. By 1915, strategic bombing campaigns targeted:
   1. Railroads
   2. Factories
   3. Other infrastructure deep in enemy territory.
4. Attacks were carried out by both airplanes and Zeppelins.

Airships (Zeppelins)

1. German Zeppelins could fly higher than most early fighters, making them difficult to intercept in the early war.
2. Used for bombing raids on British cities.
3. By 1916, advances in fighter aircraft and the use of incendiary ammunition significantly reduced their effectiveness.

2. Gas

Types of Gas Used

1. Tear agents: First used by Germans on the Eastern Front; briefly incapacitated Russians but largely ineffective.
2. Asphyxiants: Chlorine (greenish, affected eyes and lungs, fatal by suffocation); Phosgene (more lethal and less detectable; often mixed with chlorine).
3. Blistering agents: Mustard gas caused severe burns, especially on moist skin; inhalation burned lung linings; could linger in shell holes and impede movement.

Impact

1. Over 1 million casualties attributed to gas warfare.
2. Mustard gas’s persistence made it particularly dangerous even days after deployment.

3. Communications

Early Communication Methods

1. Runners, riders, bugles, drums, and flags were used, but battlefield chaos often rendered them ineffective.
2. Telephone lines, though promising, were frequently cut within minutes of battle starting.

WWI Communications Challenges

1. Generals were stationed far from increasingly stretched front lines.
2. Delayed information meant orders arrived too late or were obsolete.

Tactical Communication Solutions

1. Trench runners: Carried messages through shifting trench systems; a dangerous yet vital role.
2. Semaphore flags: Sent up to 12 words per minute in good visibility.
3. Heliographs and lamps: Used sunlight or light for Morse code; limited by daylight and line of sight.
4. Carrier pigeons: Impressively reliable. British forces used some 22,000 simultaneously, totaling 100,000 over the war. Only ~2% failed to return.

4. Machine Guns

Rise of the Machine Gun

1. Based on Hiram Maxim’s invention, firing up to 600 rounds per minute using gas recoil.
2. By 1914, every major army fielded a version; (WWI) models reached 1,200 rounds per minute by war’s end.
3. Crewed by 4–6 soldiers; faced issues with overheating and jamming.

Trench Warfare Staple

1. Formed the backbone of defensive firepower, with a maximum range of 1,000 meters.
2. Lighter variants (e.g., Lewis, Vickers) were introduced for aircraft and infantry assaults.

5. Tanks

Concept and Early Deployment

1. Designed to withstand machine-gun fire and cross no-man’s land.
2. First used at the Somme (1916). Early tanks, crewed by 8, were slow (6 km/h) and broke down often, with stifling diesel and cordite fumes.

Tactical Use and Effectiveness

1. Used as moving cover for infantry, enabling gains of about 3.5 km before mechanical failure.
2. In 1918, massed deployments with artillery and air support changed effectiveness, foreshadowing WWII tactics.

Production

1. Germany: about 20 tanks (some captured from Allies).
2. France: 4,000+ tanks.
3. Britain: 2,600 tanks.

6. Submarines

Promise of the U-boat

1. Offered Germany a potent naval tool to bypass Britain’s surface fleet advantage.
2. Began WWI with ~30 operational U-boats; tapped into merchant sea lanes and targeted Allied shipping.

Operational Challenges

1. Early U-boats had single torpedo tubes; later, multiple tubes were added.
2. Ethical dilemmas - maritime law required warning ships before attack, negating surprise.
3. Unrestricted submarine warfare removed these constraints, enabling devastating attacks on all suspected supply vessels.

Countermeasures

1. Convoy system: Groups of merchant ships escorted by warships drastically reduced sinkings. By late 1917, this became standard in the Atlantic.
2. Depth charges: Explosive canisters dropped into the water at set depths; first used in 1916 and became more effective as detection methods improved.
3. Hydrophones (early sonar): Allowed surface ships to listen for submarine engines underwater, though accuracy was limited.
4. Q-ships: Armed merchant vessels disguised as unarmed cargo ships to lure submarines into surfacing, then open fire at close range.
5. Aerial patrols: Aircraft spotted submarines from above, forcing them to dive and thus travel slower.
6. Minefields: Particularly the massive North Sea Mine Barrage, laid between Scotland and Norway in 1918, blocked U-boat access to the Atlantic.
7. Improved signalling and intelligence: Wireless interception and code-breaking (e.g., Room 40 in Britain) helped track U-boat movements and redirect convoys.