Key Questions
- What were the social and economic effects of the war?
- What were the short term and long term political effects of the war?
- What territorial changes took place as a result of the war?
- What challenges did the peacemakers face?
- What was the impact of the war on the role and status of women?
The Human Cost

1. Military Death Toll and Casualties
- Approximately 9 million soldiers were killed during World War One.
- This accounted for roughly 15% of all combatants involved in the conflict.
- Beyond fatalities, millions more soldiers were permanently disabled due to injuries sustained.
- For example, in Britain alone, around 41,000 war veterans lost one or more limbs as a result of the fighting.
- The scale of casualties was unprecedented, reflecting the brutal nature of trench warfare, artillery bombardments, and new weaponry such as machine guns and gas attacks.
2. Impact on Generations
- The immense loss of life led to the term “lost generation”, particularly in Britain, symbolizing a generation deeply scarred by the war’s devastation.
- France was especially hard hit, with about 20% of men aged 20 to 40 in 1914 killed during the war, decimating a large part of its young adult male population.
- The demographic impact affected post-war societies in terms of population, workforce, and social dynamics, as so many young men did not return.
3. Civilian Impact
- Although civilian deaths were not as extensive as those seen in World War Two, civilians increasingly became targets and victims of war-related hardships.
- Millions of civilians died indirectly due to famine, malnutrition, and diseases exacerbated by war conditions, blockades, and disrupted agriculture.
- The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918–1919 followed the war, causing an estimated 20 million deaths worldwide, further compounding the global human cost.
- The combination of military and civilian deaths made World War One one of the deadliest conflicts in human history.
The Economic Cost
1. Financial Cost of the War
- The war was financially devastating for Europe, with Britain alone spending over £34 billion on the conflict.
- All major powers financed the war largely through borrowing, leading to enormous national debts.
- By 1918, the United States had loaned $2 billion to Britain and France to help finance their war efforts.
- German U-boats had sunk approximately 40% of British merchant shipping, disrupting trade and supplies.
- During the 1920s, Britain and France allocated between one-third and one-half of their public expenditure to servicing and repaying war debts.
- The economic strain meant that Britain never regained its pre-war international financial dominance and lost access to several overseas markets.
2. Physical Destruction and Economic Impact

- The war caused widespread physical destruction of land, infrastructure, and industry across the continent, especially in areas of heavy fighting.
- France was hit particularly hard, losing 2 million hectares of farmland, along with factories and railway lines along the Western Front that were completely ruined.
- Other countries heavily affected included Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Serbia, where infrastructure and productive land were also devastated.
- Extensive reconstruction efforts were required to rebuild roads, railways, hospitals, homes, and to clear unexploded shells from agricultural land.
3. Decline in Production and Trade
- The destruction and disruption led to a dramatic decline in manufacturing output across Europe in the immediate post-war years.
- The combined effects of physical damage, loss of overseas trade, and reduced foreign investment created a severe economic crisis in Europe by 1919.
- Recovery was slow, with many nations struggling to rebuild economies burdened by debt, reconstruction costs, and diminished global influence.
The Political Impact
1. Political Stability in Western Europe
- The victorious governments of Britain and France experienced no major political upheavals as a result of the war.
- These countries remained largely stable politically despite the enormous costs and sacrifices.
2. Collapse of Empires in Central and Eastern Europe
- The war caused the collapse of multinational, monarchical empires in Central Europe.
- Before 1914, Central Europe was dominated by large empires; by 1918, these regimes had all fallen.
- This led to a major redrawing of the map and the rise of republican governments.
- Historian Niall Ferguson described this as a “triumph of republicanism undreamt of even in the 1790s.”
3. Germany

- Revolution broke out before the war ended, starting with a mutiny by sailors in Kiel.
- Socialist-led uprisings of workers and soldiers spread to other cities.
- On 9 November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled to Holland.
- The following day, Friedrich Ebert, a socialist leader, became head of the new German Republic.
- In January 1919 a group of Germany Communists led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht known as the Spartacist League (KPD), aimed to create a communist state.
- The revolt in Berlin was crushed by the Freikorps with support from Ebert’s SPD government.
- It ended with the deaths of thousands, including Luxemburg and Liebknecht, deepening divisions on the political left.
- In March 1920 a right-wing coup was attempted led by Wolfgang Kapp and General von Lüttwitz.
- It was supported by Freikorps opposed to the Treaty of Versailles.
- The German government fled Berlin, but a massive general strike by workers crippled the putsch.
- The putsch collapsed within four days, showing the fragility of Weimar democracy and threats from the political right.
4. Russia
Self review- What territorial changes took place as a result of the war?

- Russia experienced two revolutions in 1917:
- The first overthrew the Tsarist monarchy and installed a Provisional Government.
- The second saw the Bolsheviks seize power and establish a Communist dictatorship.
- The Bolshevik victory and Russia’s withdrawal from the war via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk sparked a civil war lasting until 1920.
5. The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary)
- The empire disintegrated with defeat in the war.
- Emperor Karl I abdicated in November 1918, and a republic was declared.
- Austria and Hungary became separate states, while other nationalities declared independence.
6. Turkey

- The Ottoman Sultanate collapsed in 1922.
- It was replaced by an authoritarian regime under Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk).
7. United States
- The USA emerged as the world’s leading economic power.
- American industry thrived, supplying food, raw materials, and munitions to Europe.
- The US took over European overseas markets and surpassed European competitors in industries like fertilizers, dyes, and chemicals.
- Technological advances made the USA a global leader in mechanization and plastics development.
- President Woodrow Wilson aimed to create a new international order based on collective security at the Versailles Conference.
- However, most Americans preferred to focus on domestic issues such as the Spanish flu epidemic, fear of communism, industrial strikes, and racial tensions.
- There was widespread reluctance to get involved in future European conflicts.
8. Japan and China
- Japan experienced economic growth and prosperity, with exports nearly tripling during the war.
- Japan expanded territorially by seizing German holdings in Shandong province and Pacific islands.
- Japan issued the 21 Demands to China, aiming to dominate politically and economically.
- China entered the war in 1917 on the Allied side and hoped to regain control over Shandong and resist Japanese domination at the Versailles
Peacemaking - The Treaty of Versailles

1. Key Leaders at the Versailles Peace Conference
- The conference was dominated by three major leaders:
- David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of the UK)
- Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France)
- Woodrow Wilson (President of the USA)
- Japan focused mainly on decisions about the Pacific and played a minor role otherwise.
- Vittorio Orlando (Prime Minister of Italy) played a minor role and eventually walked out when Italy failed to secure hoped-for territorial gains.
2. Challenges Facing the Peacemakers
- Urgency to act swiftly due to political and social instability in Europe.
- An Allied observer described a "race between peace and anarchy," emphasizing the fragile situation.
- Several issues complicated the creation of a satisfactory treaty:
- Differing aims among the peacemakers
- The nature of the Armistice settlement and the mood of the German population
- The popular sentiment in the Allied countries
3. The Aims of the Peacemakers: Wilson’s Fourteen Points (Summary)
- Abolition of secret diplomacy – no more secret treaties or deals.
- Free navigation at sea – for all nations during war and peace.
- Free trade – between all countries to encourage peace and prosperity.
- Disarmament – reduction of military forces by all nations.
- Colonial self-determination – colonies to have a voice in their own futures.
- German troops to leave Russia – ending German occupation there.
- Restoration of Belgian independence – Belgium to be free and independent.
- Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France – reversing German annexation.
- Adjustment of Austria-Italy border – based on nationalities and ethnic groups.
- Self-determination for Austria-Hungary’s peoples – allowing ethnic groups to decide their own futures.
- Serbia to have access to the sea – improving Serbia’s trade and independence.
- Self-determination for peoples in the Turkish Empire and permanent opening of the Dardanelles strait.
- Creation of an independent Poland – with access to the sea.
- Formation of a League of Nations – to maintain international peace and prevent future wars.
4. Wilson’s Idealism and Vision for a New World Order

- Wilson was an idealist aiming to build a better, more peaceful world after WWI.
- Although he believed Germany should be punished, he hoped his Fourteen Points would create a new political and international order.
- Key ideas included:
- Self-determination: Allowing ethnic groups within old empires to form their own countries, to reduce future conflicts.
- Open diplomacy: Ending secret treaties and alliances.
- World disarmament: Reducing arms to prevent future wars.
- Economic integration: Encouraging cooperation and trade between nations.
- League of Nations: An international body to maintain peace and resolve disputes.
- Wilson believed the USA should lead this new world order, promoting democracy and peace.
- In 1916, he stated the war’s purpose was “to make the world safe for democracy”, contrasting with the more self-interested aims of European Allies.
Clemenceau’s Views: A Harsh Settlement for France
- Clemenceau, the French prime minister, was pragmatic and security-focused.
- He wanted a harsh treaty to ensure Germany could never threaten France again.
- His strategy included:
- Heavy economic and territorial sanctions on Germany.
- Strict disarmament policies to weaken Germany militarily.
- Large reparations to pay for France’s war losses and keep Germany weak.
- Clemenceau valued maintaining wartime alliances with Britain and America and was willing to make some concessions to keep those ties strong.
Lloyd George’s Position: Balancing Punishment and Recovery
- The British prime minister favored a less severe settlement than Clemenceau’s.
- He wanted Germany to lose its navy and colonies to eliminate threats to the British Empire.
- However, he also hoped Germany could recover quickly to resume trade with Britain and act as a buffer against Bolshevik Communism spreading from Russia.
- Lloyd George recognized the dangers of being too harsh, acknowledging that “injustice and arrogance in victory will never be forgiven.”
- Despite this, he faced strong public pressure in Britain to hold Germany accountable for war damages and suffering.
Japan and Italy: Aims to Maximize Wartime Gains
- Italy’s Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando wanted the Allies to honor promises from the Treaty of London and demanded the port of Fiume in the Adriatic.
- Japan sought official recognition of its seizure of German territories in the Pacific.
- Japan also pushed for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations Covenant, hoping to protect Japanese immigrants, especially in America.
The Armistice Settlement and German Expectations
- The German government sought an end to fighting expecting the Armistice to be based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which offered a more lenient peace.
- Instead, the Armistice terms were harsh, designed to:
- Remove Germany’s ability to continue fighting.
- Permanently weaken Germany militarily and territorially.
- Key Armistice terms included:
- Evacuation of all occupied territories, including Alsace-Lorraine.
- Withdrawal of German troops to east of a 10-kilometre neutral zone east of the Rhine.
- Allied occupation of the west bank of the Rhine.
- Loss of all German submarines, much of the surface fleet, and air force.
The Mood of the German Population
- Returning soldiers were initially greeted as heroes, but the German public was shocked by the defeat.
- Germans had been told their army was winning; they had occupied parts of France and Belgium and defeated Russia.
- The defeat did not seem to result from overwhelming military defeat or invasion of German territory.
- Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg claimed the army was “stabbed in the back” by politicians, implying betrayal rather than defeat by the Allies.
- Despite military disarray, the “stab-in-the-back” myth gained wide acceptance.
- Prior to the Armistice, Germany faced mutinies, strikes, and socialist uprisings.
- Blame for defeat was shifted to internal enemies—Jews, socialists, and Communists.
- Hitler later called those who agreed to the Armistice the “November Criminals.”
German Expectations at the Versailles Peace Conference
- Germans believed they had not truly been defeated and expected to participate in peace talks.
- They hoped the final treaty would be fair and based on Wilson’s principles.
- There was a major mismatch between German expectations and the Allies’ view that Germany was the defeated nation and would accept harsh terms.
Popular Mood in Britain, France, Italy, and the USA
- Allied leaders faced strong pressure from their populations demanding revenge on Germany for the war’s devastation.
- British and French public opinion, fueled by the press, demanded a punitive peace.
- Slogans like “hang the Kaiser” and “squeeze the German lemon until the pips squeak” were common.
- The French, having suffered the most fighting, demanded harsh penalties.
- The press closely covered the Versailles talks, influencing and pressuring politicians to meet public demands.
- Clemenceau and Lloyd George knew their political futures depended on securing a harsh settlement.
- Italian prime minister Orlando was under similar pressure to secure territorial and economic gains to make Italy a great power.
The American Political Situation
- In contrast, American public interest in the Versailles Treaty and Wilson’s aims waned by late 1918.
- The November 1918 mid-term elections saw a defeat for Wilson’s supporters and gains for Republicans critical of his foreign policy and Fourteen Points.
- When Wilson left for Europe in December 1918, the US Congress was hostile, dominated by Republicans.
- This raised doubts about whether the US government would ratify or honor any Versailles agreements.
The Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
- The treaty was presented to Germany after six weeks of intense negotiations.
- Germany and other defeated powers had no representation during negotiations; the treaty was thus known as the diktat (imposed settlement).
- The treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where the German Empire had been proclaimed 50 years earlier.
- The treaty consisted of 440 clauses covering various areas.
1. War Guilt
- Clause 231, known as the “war guilt clause,” placed full responsibility for the war on Germany.
- This clause provided moral justification for the treaty’s harsh terms against Germany.
2. Disarmament
- The treaty aimed to prevent future arms races like the pre-1914 buildup.


