WW1 Europe: Effects of War Notes

Key Questions

1. What were the social and economic effects of the war?
2. What were the short term and long term political effects of the war?
3. What territorial changes took place as a result of the war?
4. What challenges did the peacemakers face?
5. What was the impact of the war on the role and status of women?

The Human Cost

1. Military Death Toll and Casualties

1. Approximately 9 million soldiers were killed during World War One.
   1. This accounted for roughly 15% of all combatants involved in the conflict.
2. Beyond fatalities, millions more soldiers were permanently disabled due to injuries sustained.
   1. For example, in Britain alone, around 41,000 war veterans lost one or more limbs as a result of the fighting.
3. The scale of casualties was unprecedented, reflecting the brutal nature of trench warfare, artillery bombardments, and new weaponry such as machine guns and gas attacks.

2. Impact on Generations

1. The immense loss of life led to the term “lost generation”, particularly in Britain, symbolizing a generation deeply scarred by the war’s devastation.
2. France was especially hard hit, with about 20% of men aged 20 to 40 in 1914 killed during the war, decimating a large part of its young adult male population.
3. The demographic impact affected post-war societies in terms of population, workforce, and social dynamics, as so many young men did not return.

3. Civilian Impact

1. Although civilian deaths were not as extensive as those seen in World War Two, civilians increasingly became targets and victims of war-related hardships.
2. Millions of civilians died indirectly due to famine, malnutrition, and diseases exacerbated by war conditions, blockades, and disrupted agriculture.
3. The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918–1919 followed the war, causing an estimated 20 million deaths worldwide, further compounding the global human cost.
4. The combination of military and civilian deaths made World War One one of the deadliest conflicts in human history.

The Economic Cost

1. Financial Cost of the War

1. The war was financially devastating for Europe, with Britain alone spending over £34 billion on the conflict.
   1. All major powers financed the war largely through borrowing, leading to enormous national debts.
   2. By 1918, the United States had loaned $2 billion to Britain and France to help finance their war efforts.
2. German U-boats had sunk approximately 40% of British merchant shipping, disrupting trade and supplies.
3. During the 1920s, Britain and France allocated between one-third and one-half of their public expenditure to servicing and repaying war debts.
4. The economic strain meant that Britain never regained its pre-war international financial dominance and lost access to several overseas markets.

2. Physical Destruction and Economic Impact

1. The war caused widespread physical destruction of land, infrastructure, and industry across the continent, especially in areas of heavy fighting.
   1. France was hit particularly hard, losing 2 million hectares of farmland, along with factories and railway lines along the Western Front that were completely ruined.
   2. Other countries heavily affected included Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Serbia, where infrastructure and productive land were also devastated.
2. Extensive reconstruction efforts were required to rebuild roads, railways, hospitals, homes, and to clear unexploded shells from agricultural land.

3. Decline in Production and Trade

1. The destruction and disruption led to a dramatic decline in manufacturing output across Europe in the immediate post-war years.
2. The combined effects of physical damage, loss of overseas trade, and reduced foreign investment created a severe economic crisis in Europe by 1919.
3. Recovery was slow, with many nations struggling to rebuild economies burdened by debt, reconstruction costs, and diminished global influence.

The Political Impact

1. Political Stability in Western Europe

1. The victorious governments of Britain and France experienced no major political upheavals as a result of the war.
2. These countries remained largely stable politically despite the enormous costs and sacrifices.

2. Collapse of Empires in Central and Eastern Europe

1. The war caused the collapse of multinational, monarchical empires in Central Europe.
2. Before 1914, Central Europe was dominated by large empires; by 1918, these regimes had all fallen.
3. This led to a major redrawing of the map and the rise of republican governments.
4. Historian Niall Ferguson described this as a “triumph of republicanism undreamt of even in the 1790s.”

3. Germany

1. Revolution broke out before the war ended, starting with a mutiny by sailors in Kiel.
2. Socialist-led uprisings of workers and soldiers spread to other cities.
3. On 9 November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled to Holland.
4. The following day, Friedrich Ebert, a socialist leader, became head of the new German Republic.
5. In January 1919 a group of Germany Communists led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht known as the Spartacist League (KPD), aimed to create a communist state.
   1. The revolt in Berlin was crushed by the Freikorps with support from Ebert’s SPD government.
   2. It ended with the deaths of thousands, including Luxemburg and Liebknecht, deepening divisions on the political left.
6. In March 1920 a right-wing coup was attempted led by Wolfgang Kapp and General von Lüttwitz.
   1. It was supported by Freikorps opposed to the Treaty of Versailles.
   2. The German government fled Berlin, but a massive general strike by workers crippled the putsch.
   3. The putsch collapsed within four days, showing the fragility of Weimar democracy and threats from the political right.

4. Russia

1. Russia experienced two revolutions in 1917:
   1. The first overthrew the Tsarist monarchy and installed a Provisional Government.
   2. The second saw the Bolsheviks seize power and establish a Communist dictatorship.
2. The Bolshevik victory and Russia’s withdrawal from the war via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk sparked a civil war lasting until 1920.

5. The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary)

1. The empire disintegrated with defeat in the war.
2. Emperor Karl I abdicated in November 1918, and a republic was declared.
3. Austria and Hungary became separate states, while other nationalities declared independence.

6. Turkey

1. The Ottoman Sultanate collapsed in 1922.
2. It was replaced by an authoritarian regime under Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk).

7. United States

1. The USA emerged as the world’s leading economic power.
   1. American industry thrived, supplying food, raw materials, and munitions to Europe.
   2. The US took over European overseas markets and surpassed European competitors in industries like fertilizers, dyes, and chemicals.
   3. Technological advances made the USA a global leader in mechanization and plastics development.
2. President Woodrow Wilson aimed to create a new international order based on collective security at the Versailles Conference.
3. However, most Americans preferred to focus on domestic issues such as the Spanish flu epidemic, fear of communism, industrial strikes, and racial tensions.
4. There was widespread reluctance to get involved in future European conflicts.

8. Japan and China

1. Japan experienced economic growth and prosperity, with exports nearly tripling during the war.
2. Japan expanded territorially by seizing German holdings in Shandong province and Pacific islands.
3. Japan issued the 21 Demands to China, aiming to dominate politically and economically.
4. China entered the war in 1917 on the Allied side and hoped to regain control over Shandong and resist Japanese domination at the Versailles

Peacemaking - The Treaty of Versailles

1. Key Leaders at the Versailles Peace Conference

1. The conference was dominated by three major leaders:
   1. David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of the UK)
   2. Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France)
   3. Woodrow Wilson (President of the USA)
2. Japan focused mainly on decisions about the Pacific and played a minor role otherwise.
3. Vittorio Orlando (Prime Minister of Italy) played a minor role and eventually walked out when Italy failed to secure hoped-for territorial gains.

2. Challenges Facing the Peacemakers

1. Urgency to act swiftly due to political and social instability in Europe.
2. An Allied observer described a "race between peace and anarchy," emphasizing the fragile situation.
3. Several issues complicated the creation of a satisfactory treaty:
   1. Differing aims among the peacemakers
   2. The nature of the Armistice settlement and the mood of the German population
   3. The popular sentiment in the Allied countries

3. The Aims of the Peacemakers: Wilson’s Fourteen Points (Summary)

1. Abolition of secret diplomacy – no more secret treaties or deals.
2. Free navigation at sea – for all nations during war and peace.
3. Free trade – between all countries to encourage peace and prosperity.
4. Disarmament – reduction of military forces by all nations.
5. Colonial self-determination – colonies to have a voice in their own futures.
6. German troops to leave Russia – ending German occupation there.
7. Restoration of Belgian independence – Belgium to be free and independent.
8. Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France – reversing German annexation.
9. Adjustment of Austria-Italy border – based on nationalities and ethnic groups.
10. Self-determination for Austria-Hungary’s peoples – allowing ethnic groups to decide their own futures.
11. Serbia to have access to the sea – improving Serbia’s trade and independence.
12. Self-determination for peoples in the Turkish Empire and permanent opening of the Dardanelles strait.
13. Creation of an independent Poland – with access to the sea.
14. Formation of a League of Nations – to maintain international peace and prevent future wars.

4. Wilson’s Idealism and Vision for a New World Order

1. Wilson was an idealist aiming to build a better, more peaceful world after WWI.
2. Although he believed Germany should be punished, he hoped his Fourteen Points would create a new political and international order.
3. Key ideas included:
   1. Self-determination: Allowing ethnic groups within old empires to form their own countries, to reduce future conflicts.
   2. Open diplomacy: Ending secret treaties and alliances.
   3. World disarmament: Reducing arms to prevent future wars.
   4. Economic integration: Encouraging cooperation and trade between nations.
   5. League of Nations: An international body to maintain peace and resolve disputes.
4. Wilson believed the USA should lead this new world order, promoting democracy and peace.
5. In 1916, he stated the war’s purpose was “to make the world safe for democracy”, contrasting with the more self-interested aims of European Allies.

Clemenceau’s Views: A Harsh Settlement for France

1. Clemenceau, the French prime minister, was pragmatic and security-focused.
2. He wanted a harsh treaty to ensure Germany could never threaten France again.
3. His strategy included:
   1. Heavy economic and territorial sanctions on Germany.
   2. Strict disarmament policies to weaken Germany militarily.
   3. Large reparations to pay for France’s war losses and keep Germany weak.
4. Clemenceau valued maintaining wartime alliances with Britain and America and was willing to make some concessions to keep those ties strong.

Lloyd George’s Position: Balancing Punishment and Recovery

1. The British prime minister favored a less severe settlement than Clemenceau’s.
2. He wanted Germany to lose its navy and colonies to eliminate threats to the British Empire.
3. However, he also hoped Germany could recover quickly to resume trade with Britain and act as a buffer against Bolshevik Communism spreading from Russia.
4. Lloyd George recognized the dangers of being too harsh, acknowledging that “injustice and arrogance in victory will never be forgiven.”
5. Despite this, he faced strong public pressure in Britain to hold Germany accountable for war damages and suffering.

Japan and Italy: Aims to Maximize Wartime Gains

1. Italy’s Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando wanted the Allies to honor promises from the Treaty of London and demanded the port of Fiume in the Adriatic.
2. Japan sought official recognition of its seizure of German territories in the Pacific.
3. Japan also pushed for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations Covenant, hoping to protect Japanese immigrants, especially in America.

The Armistice Settlement and German Expectations

1. The German government sought an end to fighting expecting the Armistice to be based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which offered a more lenient peace.
2. Instead, the Armistice terms were harsh, designed to:
   1. Remove Germany’s ability to continue fighting.
   2. Permanently weaken Germany militarily and territorially.
3. Key Armistice terms included:
   1. Evacuation of all occupied territories, including Alsace-Lorraine.
   2. Withdrawal of German troops to east of a 10-kilometre neutral zone east of the Rhine.
   3. Allied occupation of the west bank of the Rhine.
   4. Loss of all German submarines, much of the surface fleet, and air force.

The Mood of the German Population

1. Returning soldiers were initially greeted as heroes, but the German public was shocked by the defeat.
   1. Germans had been told their army was winning; they had occupied parts of France and Belgium and defeated Russia.
   2. The defeat did not seem to result from overwhelming military defeat or invasion of German territory.
2. Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg claimed the army was “stabbed in the back” by politicians, implying betrayal rather than defeat by the Allies.
   1. Despite military disarray, the “stab-in-the-back” myth gained wide acceptance.
3. Prior to the Armistice, Germany faced mutinies, strikes, and socialist uprisings.
   1. Blame for defeat was shifted to internal enemies—Jews, socialists, and Communists.
   2. Hitler later called those who agreed to the Armistice the “November Criminals.”

German Expectations at the Versailles Peace Conference

1. Germans believed they had not truly been defeated and expected to participate in peace talks.
2. They hoped the final treaty would be fair and based on Wilson’s principles.
3. There was a major mismatch between German expectations and the Allies’ view that Germany was the defeated nation and would accept harsh terms.

Popular Mood in Britain, France, Italy, and the USA

1. Allied leaders faced strong pressure from their populations demanding revenge on Germany for the war’s devastation.
2. British and French public opinion, fueled by the press, demanded a punitive peace.
   1. Slogans like “hang the Kaiser” and “squeeze the German lemon until the pips squeak” were common.
   2. The French, having suffered the most fighting, demanded harsh penalties.
3. The press closely covered the Versailles talks, influencing and pressuring politicians to meet public demands.
4. Clemenceau and Lloyd George knew their political futures depended on securing a harsh settlement.
5. Italian prime minister Orlando was under similar pressure to secure territorial and economic gains to make Italy a great power.

The American Political Situation

1. In contrast, American public interest in the Versailles Treaty and Wilson’s aims waned by late 1918.
2. The November 1918 mid-term elections saw a defeat for Wilson’s supporters and gains for Republicans critical of his foreign policy and Fourteen Points.
3. When Wilson left for Europe in December 1918, the US Congress was hostile, dominated by Republicans.
4. This raised doubts about whether the US government would ratify or honor any Versailles agreements.

The Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

1. The treaty was presented to Germany after six weeks of intense negotiations.
2. Germany and other defeated powers had no representation during negotiations; the treaty was thus known as the diktat (imposed settlement).
3. The treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where the German Empire had been proclaimed 50 years earlier.
4. The treaty consisted of 440 clauses covering various areas.

1. War Guilt

1. Clause 231, known as the “war guilt clause,” placed full responsibility for the war on Germany.
2. This clause provided moral justification for the treaty’s harsh terms against Germany.

2. Disarmament

1. The treaty aimed to prevent future arms races like the pre-1914 buildup.