- After 1849: The failed revolutions of 1848–49 showed Italians that unity couldn’t be achieved just through uprisings. Leaders now turned to diplomacy and stronger leadership.
- Piedmont’s role: The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia became the driving force of unification. It had a modern army, a constitution, and a determined king (Victor Emmanuel II).
- Cavour’s leadership: Count Cavour, Piedmont’s prime minister (from 1852), was a clever diplomat who believed Italy could only unite gradually, with help from powerful allies.
- Crimean War (1854–56): Cavour sent Piedmontese troops to fight alongside Britain and France, gaining international recognition and a seat at the peace conference.
- Plombières Agreement (1858): Cavour struck a secret deal with France (Napoleon III): France would help Piedmont fight Austria, and Piedmont would give France land (Nice and Savoy) in return.
- War with Austria (1859): Piedmont and France defeated Austria at Magenta and Solferino. Lombardy was gained for Piedmont, but France pulled out early, leaving Venetia still under Austrian control.
- Garibaldi’s “Thousand” (1860): Giuseppe Garibaldi, a revolutionary hero, led volunteers to conquer Sicily and Naples in the “Expedition of the Thousand.” His victories inspired huge popular support.
- Cavour vs. Garibaldi: Cavour feared Garibaldi’s success would lead to radical revolution or even war with France. He rushed Piedmont’s army south, meeting Garibaldi near Naples. Garibaldi handed his conquests over to Victor Emmanuel II.
- Foreign influence: France helped Piedmont against Austria, then protected the Pope in Rome. Austria still controlled Venetia until Prussia’s victory over Austria in 1866 gave it to Italy. Finally, France withdrew troops from Rome in 1870 (because of the Franco-Prussian War), allowing Italy to capture it.
- 1871: Unification complete: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy. Rome became the capital. However, unity was more political than social as Italy still had deep divisions between north and south, rich and poor.
Case study
The Crimean War and Italian Unification
Background
- The Crimean War was mainly fought between Russia on one side and Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empireon the other.
- Piedmont-Sardinia, a small Italian state, had little reason to join. But Prime Minister Cavour saw it as a chance to raise Piedmont’s status in Europe.
Cavour’s Decision
- In 1855, Cavour sent about 15,000 Piedmontese troops to fight in Crimea, alongside Britain and France.
- Piedmont’s troops fought bravely at the Battle of the Chernaya River (1855), gaining respect despite being a small power.
Results for Piedmont and Italy
- International recognition: Piedmont was now seen as more than just a small Italian state. It was treated as a serious player.
- Peace conference at Paris (1856): Cavour secured Piedmont a seat at the negotiating table. He used this opportunity to raise the “Italian Question” (the problem of Austrian control in Italy).
- Alliance with France: The war gave Cavour the chance to build a relationship with Napoleon III of France, which would be crucial for the Plombières Agreement (1858) and later war against Austria.
- Propaganda victory: For Italians, Piedmont’s involvement showed that one Italian state could take the lead in the fight for independence and unity.
Significance
- Cavour didn’t join the Crimean War for military gains. He did it for political and diplomatic reasons.
- This marked a turning point: Italian unification would not just come from revolutions and uprisings, but also from clever diplomacy and international support.
Common Mistake
- Students sometimes give all the credit to either Cavour or Garibaldi. In reality, both were essential, along with foreign powers like France and Prussia.
- Italy was declared unified in 1871, but huge economic and cultural divides remained.
Exam technique
- France, Austria, and Prussia played a decisive role. Don’t write about unification as if Italians achieved it alone.
- Contrast Cavour’s diplomacy with Garibaldi’s military action to show how unification was achieved through both “brain” and “sword.”
Self review
- Evaluate the importance of Cavour in the unification of Italy between 1849 and 1871.
- To what extent was foreign influence the main factor in Italian unification.
- “Italian unification was the result of both diplomacy and revolution.” Discuss with reference to 1849–1871.
