Italy’s Foreign Policy (1919–1941)
Aims
- Make Italy a great power again (restore the Roman Empire)
- Expand Italy’s empire, especially in Africa and the Balkans
- Revise the Treaty of Versailles (Italy felt cheated)
- Increase Mussolini’s popularity at home through bold foreign actions
Key Actions
| Year | Event | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1923 | Corfu Incident | Italy bombarded Corfu after an Italian diplomat was murdered in Greece. The League made Italy withdraw, but only after Greece paid compensation. |
| 1935–36 | Invasion of Abyssinia | Italy invaded Ethiopia. The League condemned the attack but failed to stop it. This collapsed the Stresa Front and pushed Mussolini closer to Hitler. |
| 1936 | Rome–Berlin Axis | Mussolini and Hitler signed an alliance, uniting fascist powers. |
| 1939 | Invasion of Albania | Italy invaded Albania to assert dominance in the Balkans. |
| 1940 | Entered WWII | Mussolini joined Hitler in the war to avoid missing out on spoils of victory. |
But did they win
- Mussolini gained some territories but damaged Italy’s international reputation.
- His foreign policy overstretched Italy's resources and ended in disaster during WWII.
- Overall, more failure than success. His ambitions outmatched Italy’s power.
Germany’s Foreign Policy (1919–1941)
Aims
- Undo the Treaty of Versailles
- Unite all German-speaking people (Grossdeutschland)
- Expand eastward (Lebensraum = "living space")
- Destroy communism and fight the Soviet Union
- Make Germany a world power again
Key Term Alert
- Anschluss – union with Austria
- Lebensraum – German expansion eastward
- Appeasement – giving in to aggressive demands to avoid war
Case study
The Anschluss
What Happened?
- The Anschluss was Hitler’s plan to unite Germany and Austria into one country.
- It was forbidden under the Treaty of Versailles (Article 80) and reaffirmed by the Treaty of St Germain (Austria was to remain independent).
- Hitler had attempted it once in 1934, but Mussolini stopped him by sending Italian troops to the Austrian border.
- By 1938, Germany was stronger, Italy was now an ally (Rome–Berlin Axis), and Britain and France were following a policy of appeasement.
Key Events
- Feb 1938: Hitler pressures Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg to allow Nazis more control.
- March 9: Schuschnigg calls a public vote (plebiscite) to resist union with Germany.
- March 11: Hitler sends troops into Austria. The vote is cancelled.
- March 12: Austria is annexed and becomes part of Greater Germany.
- April: A rigged plebiscite claims 99% of Austrians support the union.
Hitler’s Aims Achieved
- He broke the Treaty of Versailles and faced no consequences.
- He gained more territory and population (Austria had resources and German speakers).
- The Anschluss gave him more power in Central Europe, closer to Czechoslovakia, his next target.
- It was part of his goal for Lebensraum and uniting all ethnic Germans.
Impact on Europe
- Britain and France did not act. This encouraged Hitler to keep going.
- Austria became part of the Nazi war machine (men, resources, industry).
- The League of Nations did nothing, proving that collective security was failing.
- It showed that appeasement had limits, but no one wanted to risk war yet.
Key Actions
| Year | Action | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 1933 | Left the League of Nations | Germany rejected international cooperation. |
| 1935 | Reintroduced conscription | Violated Versailles; rebuilt German army. |
| 1936 | Remilitarized the Rhineland | France and Britain did not stop him. |
| 1938 | Anschluss with Austria | Hitler united Germany and Austria |
| 1939 | Munich Agreement | Britain and France gave Hitler the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) to avoid war. |
| 1939 | Invasion of Poland | This triggered WWII. Hitler ignored previous agreements. |
| 1939 | Nazi-Soviet Pact | Agreement with USSR to divide Poland. |
| 1941 | Invasion of USSR (Operation Barbarossa) | Hitler broke the Nazi-Soviet Pact. |
Did it work?
- Hitler was highly successful until 1939. He expanded Germany without war.
- Appeasement allowed him to break international rules.
- After 1939, his aggression started WWII; initial victories gave way to costly mistakes.
Exam technique
- Start essay by first brainstorming foreign policy aims
- Explain their major actions (with dates and names)
- End each section with a judgment: Were they successful? Why or why not?
Tip
- Use named treaties, places, and people to show depth (e.g., “Anschluss violated the Treaty of Versailles; Chamberlain’s appeasement policy at Munich failed to stop Hitler”).
Common Mistake
- Just listing events
- Ignoring Italy and focusing on Hitler
- Saying appeasement was weak without context
- Confusing Treaty terms (use flashcards!)
Exam technique
- Don’t just describe the Anschluss. Analyze its significance:
- Why did Hitler do it?
- Why was there no opposition?
- What message did this send to other countries?
Self review
- To what extent did Hitler achieve his foreign policy aims before 1939?
- How did the failure of collective security contribute to the outbreak of WWII?
- Assess the role of appeasement in the breakdown of European peace.
