Background
- The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) expanded Britain’s empire but left it deeply in debt.
- To recover costs, Britain imposed new taxes and trade regulations on its American colonies.
- These policies ended the period of “salutary neglect,” increasing imperial control and sparking colonial resentment.
Causes of Colonial Protest
Taxation and Representation
- Acts such as the Stamp Act (1765), Townshend Acts (1767), and Tea Act (1773) imposed direct and indirect taxes on the colonies.
- Colonists rejected “taxation without representation,” insisting that only their elected assemblies could levy taxes.
- This argument drew upon Enlightenment ideas about consent and government accountability.
Definition
Taxation without representation
The colonial protest slogan expressing the belief that Parliament had no right to tax people who lacked elected representatives.
Popular Resistance
- Political groups like the Sons of Liberty organized protests, boycotts, and acts of defiance (including the Boston Tea Party, 1773).
- The First Continental Congress (1774) united the colonies in coordinated resistance against British authority.
- Tensions escalated into open conflict at Lexington and Concord (1775), marking the beginning of the American Revolutionary War.
Intellectual and Ideological Foundations
Enlightenment Influence
- The revolution was grounded in Enlightenment thought, especially John Locke’s ideas of natural rights, liberty, and the social contract.
- Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776) argued that monarchy was unjust and that independence was both natural and inevitable.
- These ideas gave moral and philosophical legitimacy to rebellion.
Definition
Natural rights
The Enlightenment concept that all humans are born with inherent rights to life, liberty, and property (or happiness).
Case study
Thomas Paine and Revolutionary Thought
Common Sense (1776)
- Published anonymously in early 1776, Common Sense argued that monarchy was corrupt and unnatural and that independence from Britain was necessary.
- Paine rejected the idea of hereditary rule, declaring that legitimate government must come from the consent of the governed.
- The pamphlet sold over 100,000 copies in just a few months, rallying colonial support for independence.
The Rights of Man (1791–1792)
- Written during the French Revolution, this work defended popular sovereignty and universal rights.
- Paine argued that all people were entitled to political equality, social justice, and freedom from tyranny, extending Enlightenment principles beyond the American context.
Influence and Legacy
- Paine helped transform Enlightenment ideals into a mass political movement by making philosophy accessible to ordinary citizens.
- His writings influenced the Declaration of Independence, the French revolutionary declarations, and later democratic reform movements.
The Declaration of Independence (1776)
- Drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration of Independence proclaimed that “all men are created equal” and possess unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
- It asserted that governments derive power from the consent of the governed and that people may overthrow unjust rulers.
- The document officially broke ties with Britain and transformed colonial protest into a revolutionary movement.
The War for Independence
5. Major Military Campaigns
- Early defeats, such as at New York (1776), tested the Continental Army under George Washington.
- Strategic victories at Trenton (1776) and Saratoga (1777) boosted morale and secured French military support, a turning point in the war.
- Combined American and French forces defeated the British at Yorktown (1781), forcing General Cornwallis to surrender.
6. The Treaty of Paris (1783)
- The war ended with the Treaty of Paris, which recognized U.S. independence and defined its borders from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River.
- Britain acknowledged the sovereignty of the United States, marking the emergence of a new nation founded on Enlightenment ideals.
Case study
- The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was the turning point of the American Revolution.
- British General John Burgoyne’s plan to isolate New England by marching south from Canada failed when his forces were trapped by American troops under Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold in upstate New York. Burgoyne surrendered his entire army of 5,000 men to the Americans.
- This victory had enormous consequences. It boosted American morale and convinced France that the colonists could win a major war against Britain.
- As a result, France signed a formal alliance with the United States in 1778, providing money, weapons, soldiers, and naval support.
- The French alliance transformed the war into a global conflict, stretching Britain’s military thin and paving the way for American victory at Yorktown four years later.
Common Mistake
- Overemphasizing battles without connecting them to broader political and ideological developments.
- Ignoring Enlightenment influence, especially the role of philosophers and pamphleteers in shaping revolutionary ideas.
- Treating the Declaration as a simple list of grievances instead of understanding it as a statement of political philosophy and legitimacy for rebellion.
Exam technique
- Link ideas to events : Connect Enlightenment philosophy directly to revolutionary actions and documents.
- Include both political and military factors : Explain how ideas justified the revolution while battles determined its success.
- Use turning points : Highlight moments such as Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781) as decisive shifts in momentum and international support.
Self review
- Examine the political, intellectual, and military factors that led to the independence of the United States between 1763 and 1783.
- To what extent did Enlightenment ideas influence the Declaration of Independence and the broader American Revolution?
- Compare and contrast the roles of political ideology and military success in achieving American independence.
