Background
- The Latin American wars of independence emerged in the early nineteenth century as colonial subjects challenged Spanish and Portuguese rule.
- Influenced by the Enlightenment, the American (1776) and French (1789) Revolutions, and the Napoleonic invasion of Spain (1808), these movements combined ideas of liberty and self-determination with local struggles over race, class, and political power.
Causes and Influences
Enlightenment and Revolutionary Ideals
- Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau inspired calls for natural rights, liberty, and government by consent.
- The success of earlier revolutions showed that colonial powers could be overthrown.
- The Napoleonic occupation of Spain created a power vacuum, weakening royal authority in the Americas and encouraging Creole elites to act.
Economic and Social Grievances
- Mercantilist restrictions forced colonies to trade only with Spain or Portugal, angering Creole merchants who sought free trade.
- Social divisions ran deep: Creoles (American-born Europeans) resented their exclusion from top posts, while Indigenous, mestizo, and enslaved populations faced systemic inequality.
- These tensions shaped each region’s revolution differently.
Definition
Creoles
American-born descendants of Europeans who sought political and economic independence but often resisted radical social change.
Regional Paths to Independence
Mexico: Revolt from Below
- The Mexican movement began with Father Miguel Hidalgo’s “Grito de Dolores” (1810), calling for social justice and independence from Spain.
- His uprising, joined by José María Morelos (1811–1815), mobilized mestizo and Indigenous peasants demanding racial and economic reform.
- Both leaders were executed, but their ideas endured, influencing Mexico’s eventual independence in 1821 through compromise between revolutionaries and Creole elites.
South America: Revolt from Above
- In contrast, revolutions in South America were led by Creole elites seeking political autonomy rather than radical reform.
- Simón Bolívar led campaigns in the north (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador), while José de San Martín liberated the south (Argentina, Chile, Peru).
- Both men envisioned independent republics, but disagreed over how to unite them, reflecting regional rivalries.
Key Military Campaigns
Bolívar and San Martín’s Victories
- Bolívar’s victories at Boyacá (1819) and Carabobo (1821) secured independence for northern South America (Gran Colombia).
- San Martín’s crossing of the Andes (1817), followed by victories at Chacabuco and Maipú, freed Chile and paved the way to liberate Peru.
- By the mid-1820s, Spanish rule collapsed across most of Latin America.
Definition
Caudillo
A military or political strongman who seized power in newly independent states, often ruling through personal authority rather than institutions.
Outcomes and Challenges
Political Fragmentation
- Independence brought freedom but also instability.
- Instead of unity, Latin America fractured into separate republics, each struggling with regionalism, factionalism, and caudillo rule.
- Tensions between liberals (favoring reform and secularism) and conservatives (favoring tradition and Church authority) shaped post-independence politics.
Social Continuity
- Despite independence, social hierarchies persisted: Creoles maintained dominance while Indigenous and mixed-race populations gained little immediate improvement.
- The promise of equality and inclusion remained largely unfulfilled.
Common Mistake
- Treating Latin America as one movement instead of recognizing the regional variations in leadership, goals, and social participation.
- Ignoring the role of race and class divisions, which shaped who joined or resisted the revolutions.
- Focusing only on battles without explaining how military outcomes connected to political and social developments.
Exam technique
- Compare two specific countries : Choose examples like Mexico and Venezuela or Argentina and Peru to show understanding of both common patterns and unique contexts.
- Link social structure to political leadership : Explain how elite vs. popular movements created different revolutionary paths.
- Use battles as turning points : Refer to specific campaigns (such as Chacabuco or Ayacucho) to show how military victories secured political independence.
Case study
Mexico and Venezuela – Two Paths to Independence
- In Mexico, the fight for independence began as a grassroots revolt.
- Priest Miguel Hidalgo issued the Grito de Dolores in 1810, calling for the end of Spanish rule and social reform. His poorly armed army of peasants and Indigenous people briefly captured major cities before being defeated.
- Leadership passed to José María Morelos, who continued the struggle with a clearer political vision of equality and independence.
- However, both leaders were executed, and independence was only achieved later when conservative Creoles, led by Agustín de Iturbide, joined the cause in 1821, transforming the revolution into a negotiated settlement.
- In Venezuela, independence was led by Simón Bolívar, a Creole aristocrat who sought a united Latin America.
- After early failures, Bolívar launched new campaigns from exile and achieved decisive victories at Boyacá (1819) and Carabobo (1821), which liberated Venezuela and Colombia.
- His leadership combined military skill with Enlightenment-inspired political ideas, but his dream of unity under Gran Colombia soon collapsed due to regional rivalries.
- These two cases show both similarities (foreign influence, Enlightenment ideals, and the collapse of Spain’s power) and differences. Mexico’s revolution began from below with popular demands, while Venezuela’s was led by elites seeking political autonomy.
Self review
- Examine the main characteristics of the independence movements in Latin America between 1810 and 1830.
- Compare and contrast the causes, leadership, and outcomes of the independence movements in two Latin American countries.
- To what extent did military campaigns determine the success of the Latin American independence movements?
