Long-Term Causes (Pre-1914)
Nationalism
- Countries like Germany and France were highly nationalistic, believing in their own superiority.
- Nationalism was especially strong in the Balkans, where Slavic groups wanted independence from empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans.
Imperialism
- European powers competed fiercely for colonies, particularly in Africa and Asia.
- Germany was late to empire-building and resented being “left out.” This caused tension with France and Britain.
Militarism
- Military spending increased massively between 1870–1914.
Countries developed detailed war plans (e.g. Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, France’s Plan XVII). - Generals gained more influence in decision-making.
Alliance System
- Europe was divided into two armed camps: Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia).
- The alliance system increased suspicion and made a local conflict more likely to spread.
German Foreign Policy (Weltpolitik)
- Germany’s aggressive push for global influence included a naval arms race with Britain and attempts to disrupt colonial arrangements.
- This isolated Germany diplomatically and increased tensions.
- Imperialism wasn’t just about land; it was about status and fear of falling behind.
- Alliances meant that countries couldn’t stay out of a war between others.
- Avoid simply listing causes. Explain how they are linked.
- Use phrases like “interconnected causes” and explore how one factor worsened another (e.g. alliances + nationalism in the Balkans).
- Structure your essay around “long-term,” “short-term,” and “immediate trigger” for clear organization.
Compare the Causes of the War
| CAUSE | RELATIVE IMPORTANCE |
|---|---|
| Nationalism | Led to Balkan instability, public pressure for war, and belief in superiority |
| Militarism | War plans were rigid, and military leaders dominated decision-making |
| Imperialism | Created tension, especially in Africa, but not the direct cause |
| Alliance System | Escalated a local crisis into world war |
| German foreign policy | Aggressive diplomacy isolated Germany and increased risk |
| July Crisis | The final trigger; decisions made under pressure and fear |
July Crisis
What happened:
- After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia.
- Germany gave Austria a “blank cheque” (full support even if it led to war.)
- Serbia agreed to most demands, but Austria declared war anyway.
- Russia mobilized to support Serbia → Germany declared war on Russia → France and Britain followed.
Why it’s important:
- The July Crisis is a perfect example of how long-term causes made compromise impossible.
- Militarism (plans), alliances (obligations), and nationalism (public mood) all collided.
- Each power acted out of fear and miscalculated how others would respond.
- Use the July Crisis to connect short- and long-term causes. For example: "The July Crisis demonstrated how the alliance system, militarism, and nationalism combined to prevent a peaceful solution.”
- Structure your essay around themes, not timelines. A strong approach is to group causes as underlying (long-term), accelerating (short-term), and immediate (trigger).
- Use specific examples to show scale e.g. Show how nationalism in the Balkans was more volatile than imperialism in Africa.
- Saying “all causes were equally important.”
- Forgetting to explain how one cause influenced others (e.g. militarism made alliances more dangerous)
- Treating the assassination like a stand-alone cause.
Key Developments in the Alliance System
Triple Alliance (1882)
- Members: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
- Formed to protect against France and maintain Central European influence
- Italy’s later joined the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1915
Dual Alliance (1879)
- Germany and Austria-Hungary had a defensive alliance against Russia
- Set the foundation for German support of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans
Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
- Signed in reaction to the Triple Alliance and Germany’s failure to renew the Reinsurance Treaty
- Balanced German-Austrian power with a France-Russia block
Entente Cordiale (1904)
- Agreement between Britain and France to settle colonial disputes
- It improved diplomatic and military cooperation
Triple Entente (1907)
- Britain, France, and Russia formed a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance.
- Alliances were originally meant to prevent war by creating a balance of power but instead, they made countries overconfident and locked into obligations.
- When one country was attacked, others felt forced to join, turning a local crisis (like Austria vs Serbia) into a world war.
- Alliances also deepened mistrust. Leaders assumed other powers would act aggressively, even when they didn’t.
The Schlieffen Plan (1905–1914)
- Germany’s war plan was based on the assumption of a two-front war against France and Russia.
- It relied on quickly defeating France by going through Belgium (violating neutrality), then turning to fight Russia.
- Germany expected France and Russia to mobilize together, so it had to act fast.
- The plan triggered British entry into the war when Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914.
- Use examples to show escalation
"When Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia, Russia mobilized. Germany then declared war on Russia. France joined, then Britain. This chain reaction was made possible by alliances." - Don’t mix up the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance
- Use phrases like “The alliance system did not make war inevitable, but it made it more likely once crisis began.”
- Saying “alliances caused the war” without explaining how
- Assuming all alliances were military pacts
- Forgetting Italy switched sides in 1915
The Decline of the Ottoman Empire
- The Ottoman Empire was known as the “Sick Man of Europe” in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- Its decline created a power vacuum in the Balkans, attracting the interest of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Serbia.
- This led to a struggle for influence in the region, triggering crises and worsening European tensions.
Impact on European Powers
- Austria-Hungary wanted to expand southward into former Ottoman territories to maintain influence and block Slavic nationalism.
- Russia supported Slavic nations, especially Serbia, to extend its power in the Balkans and gain access to warm-water ports.
- The tension between Austria-Hungary and Russia over the Balkans was a major source of pre-war rivalry.
Balkan Nationalism & Instability
- As the Ottomans withdrew, newly independent states like Serbia grew in ambition and sought to unite all Slavs (“Pan-Slavism”).
- Austria-Hungary feared this would encourage rebellion in its multi-ethnic empire (especially among Slavs in Bosnia).
Goals of Weltpolitik
- Germany aimed to become a global power with colonies, a large navy, and international influence.
- Challenged Britain and France in Africa and the seas.
- Built a navy to rival the Royal Navy which led to a naval arms race with Britain.
Diplomatic Isolation
- Germany let the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia lapse in 1890, pushing Russia to ally with France (1894).
- Germany’s aggressive moves in Morocco (1905, 1911) and the Balkans further alienated Britain and France.
Support for Austria-Hungary
- Germany provided unconditional backing to Austria-Hungary during Balkan crises.
- In July 1914, Germany gave Austria the “blank cheque”, encouraging Austria to take a hard line against Serbia.
- German foreign policy shifted dramatically after Bismarck from managing alliances to confronting rivals.
- Weltpolitik created fear and mistrust among other powers.
- Germany’s aggressive stance made it look like a threat, not just a power.
- Be specific with examples
Moroccan Crises, the naval arms race, and the blank cheque each show a different way Germany's policy created instability. - Tie foreign policy to both long- and short-term causes e.g Weltpolitik is a long-term background, but the blank cheque is a short-term trigger.
- Thinking Germany’s foreign policy was entirely about war. They wanted status, not necessarily war.
- Treating Germany as isolated by accident. Many of its own actions (e.g., Morocco, naval buildup) caused the isolation.
- Confusing Bismarck’s Realpolitik with Wilhelm’s Weltpolitik
Austria-Hungary
- A multi-ethnic empire with growing internal unrest, especially among Slavs (Czechs, Croats, Serbs, Bosnians).
- Feared the growth of Serbian nationalism, which could inspire rebellion within its own borders.
