Long-Term Causes (Pre-1914)
Nationalism
- Countries like Germany and France were highly nationalistic, believing in their own superiority.
- Nationalism was especially strong in the Balkans, where Slavic groups wanted independence from empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans.
Imperialism
- European powers competed fiercely for colonies, particularly in Africa and Asia.
- Germany was late to empire-building and resented being “left out.” This caused tension with France and Britain.
Militarism
- Military spending increased massively between 1870–1914.
Countries developed detailed war plans (e.g. Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, France’s Plan XVII). - Generals gained more influence in decision-making.
Alliance System
- Europe was divided into two armed camps: Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia).
- The alliance system increased suspicion and made a local conflict more likely to spread.
German Foreign Policy (Weltpolitik)
- Germany’s aggressive push for global influence included a naval arms race with Britain and attempts to disrupt colonial arrangements.
- This isolated Germany diplomatically and increased tensions.
Hint
- Imperialism wasn’t just about land; it was about status and fear of falling behind.
- Alliances meant that countries couldn’t stay out of a war between others.
Exam technique
- Avoid simply listing causes. Explain how they are linked.
- Use phrases like “interconnected causes” and explore how one factor worsened another (e.g. alliances + nationalism in the Balkans).
- Structure your essay around “long-term,” “short-term,” and “immediate trigger” for clear organization.
Compare the Causes of the War
| CAUSE | RELATIVE IMPORTANCE |
|---|---|
| Nationalism | Led to Balkan instability, public pressure for war, and belief in superiority |
| Militarism | War plans were rigid, and military leaders dominated decision-making |
| Imperialism | Created tension, especially in Africa, but not the direct cause |
| Alliance System | Escalated a local crisis into world war |
| German foreign policy | Aggressive diplomacy isolated Germany and increased risk |
| July Crisis | The final trigger; decisions made under pressure and fear |
Case study
July Crisis
What happened:
- After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia.
- Germany gave Austria a “blank cheque” (full support even if it led to war.)
- Serbia agreed to most demands, but Austria declared war anyway.
- Russia mobilized to support Serbia → Germany declared war on Russia → France and Britain followed.
Why it’s important:
- The July Crisis is a perfect example of how long-term causes made compromise impossible.
- Militarism (plans), alliances (obligations), and nationalism (public mood) all collided.
- Each power acted out of fear and miscalculated how others would respond.
Exam technique
- Use the July Crisis to connect short- and long-term causes. For example: "The July Crisis demonstrated how the alliance system, militarism, and nationalism combined to prevent a peaceful solution.”
- Structure your essay around themes, not timelines. A strong approach is to group causes as underlying (long-term), accelerating (short-term), and immediate (trigger).
- Use specific examples to show scale e.g. Show how nationalism in the Balkans was more volatile than imperialism in Africa.
Common Mistake
- Saying “all causes were equally important.”
- Forgetting to explain how one cause influenced others (e.g. militarism made alliances more dangerous)
- Treating the assassination like a stand-alone cause.
Key Developments in the Alliance System
Triple Alliance (1882)
- Members: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
- Formed to protect against France and maintain Central European influence
- Italy’s later joined the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1915
Dual Alliance (1879)
- Germany and Austria-Hungary had a defensive alliance against Russia
- Set the foundation for German support of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans
Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
- Signed in reaction to the Triple Alliance and Germany’s failure to renew the Reinsurance Treaty
- Balanced German-Austrian power with a France-Russia block
Entente Cordiale (1904)
- Agreement between Britain and France to settle colonial disputes
- It improved diplomatic and military cooperation
Triple Entente (1907)
- Britain, France, and Russia formed a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance.
Tip
- Alliances were originally meant to prevent war by creating a balance of power but instead, they made countries overconfident and locked into obligations.
- When one country was attacked, others felt forced to join, turning a local crisis (like Austria vs Serbia) into a world war.
- Alliances also deepened mistrust. Leaders assumed other powers would act aggressively, even when they didn’t.
Case study
The Schlieffen Plan (1905–1914)
- Germany’s war plan was based on the assumption of a two-front war against France and Russia.
- It relied on quickly defeating France by going through Belgium (violating neutrality), then turning to fight Russia.
- Germany expected France and Russia to mobilize together, so it had to act fast.
- The plan triggered British entry into the war when Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914.
Exam technique
- Use examples to show escalation
"When Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia, Russia mobilized. Germany then declared war on Russia. France joined, then Britain. This chain reaction was made possible by alliances." - Don’t mix up the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance
- Use phrases like “The alliance system did not make war inevitable, but it made it more likely once crisis began.”
Common Mistake
- Saying “alliances caused the war” without explaining how
- Assuming all alliances were military pacts
- Forgetting Italy switched sides in 1915
The Decline of the Ottoman Empire
- The Ottoman Empire was known as the “Sick Man of Europe” in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- Its decline created a power vacuum in the Balkans, attracting the interest of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Serbia.
- This led to a struggle for influence in the region, triggering crises and worsening European tensions.
Impact on European Powers
- Austria-Hungary wanted to expand southward into former Ottoman territories to maintain influence and block Slavic nationalism.
- Russia supported Slavic nations, especially Serbia, to extend its power in the Balkans and gain access to warm-water ports.
- The tension between Austria-Hungary and Russia over the Balkans was a major source of pre-war rivalry.
Balkan Nationalism & Instability
- As the Ottomans withdrew, newly independent states like Serbia grew in ambition and sought to unite all Slavs (“Pan-Slavism”).
- Austria-Hungary feared this would encourage rebellion in its multi-ethnic empire (especially among Slavs in Bosnia).
Goals of Weltpolitik
- Germany aimed to become a global power with colonies, a large navy, and international influence.
- Challenged Britain and France in Africa and the seas.
- Built a navy to rival the Royal Navy which led to a naval arms race with Britain.
Diplomatic Isolation
- Germany let the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia lapse in 1890, pushing Russia to ally with France (1894).
- Germany’s aggressive moves in Morocco (1905, 1911) and the Balkans further alienated Britain and France.
Support for Austria-Hungary
- Germany provided unconditional backing to Austria-Hungary during Balkan crises.
- In July 1914, Germany gave Austria the “blank cheque”, encouraging Austria to take a hard line against Serbia.
Hint
- German foreign policy shifted dramatically after Bismarck from managing alliances to confronting rivals.
- Weltpolitik created fear and mistrust among other powers.
- Germany’s aggressive stance made it look like a threat, not just a power.
Exam technique
- Be specific with examples
Moroccan Crises, the naval arms race, and the blank cheque each show a different way Germany's policy created instability. - Tie foreign policy to both long- and short-term causes e.g Weltpolitik is a long-term background, but the blank cheque is a short-term trigger.
Common Mistake
- Thinking Germany’s foreign policy was entirely about war. They wanted status, not necessarily war.
- Treating Germany as isolated by accident. Many of its own actions (e.g., Morocco, naval buildup) caused the isolation.
- Confusing Bismarck’s Realpolitik with Wilhelm’s Weltpolitik
Austria-Hungary
- A multi-ethnic empire with growing internal unrest, especially among Slavs (Czechs, Croats, Serbs, Bosnians).
- Feared the growth of Serbian nationalism, which could inspire rebellion within its own borders.
- Saw intervention in the Balkans as necessary to maintain its power and prestige.
Russia
- Promoted Pan-Slavism (all Slavic people should unite under Russian leadership.)
- Supported Serbia as a rising power in the Balkans.
- Sought influence in the region to replace the Ottomans and counter Austria-Hungary.
Serbia and Balkan Nationalism
- Serbia emerged stronger after the Balkan Wars and aspired to unite all South Slavs, including those inside Austria-Hungary.
- Groups like the Black Hand supported violence and revolution to achieve Serbian nationalist goals.
- Serbia’s refusal to back down from Austria’s demands after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand directly led to war.
Exam technique
- Frame Austria-Hungary as insecure, not aggressive
Its actions were meant to protect itself from collapse, not dominate Europe. - Use Balkan nationalism as a “trigger” factor
Especially in relation to the assassination in Sarajevo and Austria’s harsh response. - Make Russia’s role clear
As both a protector of Serbia and a rival to Austria, Russia’s mobilization was one of the key turning points in July 1914.
Common Mistake
- Assuming Austria was a strong empire. It was actually weak and afraid, which made it act rashly.
- Treating Serbia like a victim only. Serbia also pushed the limits and supported extremist nationalism.
- Ignoring Russia’s role in escalating tensions, especially during the July Crisis and earlier Balkan conflicts.
The Arms Race and Diplomatic Crises
- The arms race was both a symbol and a cause of increasing tensions among Europe’s great powers.
- It wasn’t just about weapons. It was about prestige, fear, and military planning.
- A series of diplomatic crises from 1905 to 1913 made war seem increasingly likely as countries trusted diplomacy less and militaries more.
Naval Race: Germany vs Britain
- Germany’s Naval Laws (1898, 1900) began a serious effort to challenge Britain’s dominance at sea.
- Britain responded with the launch of the HMS Dreadnought in 1906, a powerful new class of battleship.
- The race became a symbol of Germany’s aggressive Weltpolitik, and made Britain more willing to side with France and Russia.
Land Armies and Mobilization
- Germany, France, and Russia all expanded their armies.
- Conscription was universal; training and war plans became national priorities.
- Germany’s Schlieffen Plan and France’s Plan XVII showed that countries were preparing not for diplomacy but for total war.
Key Diplomatic Crises (1905–1913)
First Moroccan Crisis (1905–1906)
- Germany challenged French influence in Morocco to test the Entente Cordiale.
- Kaiser Wilhelm visited Tangier to express support for Moroccan independence.
- At the Algeciras Conference, Germany was diplomatically isolated.
Result: Britain and France grew closer.
Second Moroccan Crisis / Agadir Crisis (1911)
- France sent troops to Morocco; Germany sent the gunboat Panther to Agadir.
- Britain feared Germany would take over a key Atlantic port.
- Germany was again isolated and humiliated diplomatically.
- Result: Deepened trust between France and Britain, and reinforced German resentment.
Bosnian Crisis (1908–09)
- Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, angering Serbia and Russia.
- Russia backed down when Germany supported Austria.
- Result: Russia vowed never to retreat again, and Serbia became more defiant.
Balkan Wars (1912–13)
- Balkan states pushed the Ottomans out of Europe.
- Serbia emerged stronger
- Austria felt more threatened.
- Austria began to view Serbia as an existential threat.
Tip
- The arms race gave generals more power and made war feel inevitable.
- The crises showed that Germany was diplomatically isolated and frustrated. Each time a country lost face in a crisis, they promised not to back down next time, which made the July Crisis explosive.
Exam technique
- Compare the crises
Which were turning points? (e.g., 1905 for isolation, 1911 for Anglo-French military cooperation, 1908 for Russian bitterness) - Use precise examples
Students often say “there were crises.” You should name and explain at least two, ideally three.
Common Mistake
- Saying countries wanted war because of the arms race. It’s more accurate to say the arms race made war more likely once tensions rose.
- Treating each crisis separately. Look at them as a pattern of rising tension and failed diplomacy.
- Overemphasizing Germany as the only aggressor. Austria-Hungary, Russia, and France also acted provocatively.
The July Crisis of 1914
- The July Crisis was the chain of events that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914.
- Led to the outbreak of the First World War.
- It involved decisions by Austria-Hungary, Germany, Serbia, Russia, France, and Britain.
- It rapidly escalated the situation from a regional crisis to a full-scale European war.
June 28: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
- The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist group.
- Austria blamed Serbia and saw this as a chance to weaken them.
July 5–6: Germany issues the "Blank Cheque"
- Germany promised unconditional support to Austria-Hungary in any action it chose to take against Serbia.
- This encouraged Austria to take a hardline approach, believing Germany would back them no matter what.
July 23: Austria-Hungary sends an ultimatum to Serbia
- The demands were extremely harsh, including allowing Austrian officials to operate within Serbia.
- Serbia accepted most of the conditions but rejected one key demand.
July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
July 30–31: Russia begins mobilization
- Russia, seeing itself as the protector of Serbia, began mobilizing its army.
- Germany saw this as a threat to Austria and itself.
August 1–4: War escalates quickly
- August 1: Germany declares war on Russia.
- August 3: Germany declares war on France.
- August 4: Germany invades Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan, and Britain declares war on Germany.
Tip
- This crisis happened in just over one month, but it reflected years of tension, alliance commitments, military planning, and fear.
- Each country believed it was acting defensively or would gain advantage by acting quickly.
- No one expected a full-scale war, but no one could back down without losing prestige or influence.
Case study
The Blank Cheque (5–6 July 1914)
- Germany’s decision to offer Austria-Hungary unconditional support was a turning point.
- Without the blank cheque, Austria may have acted more cautiously.
- It shows how Germany's foreign policy directly influenced the outbreak of war.
- The blank cheque made it clear that Germany was willing to risk war, even if Austria’s actions caused international backlash. It pushed Austria toward war and discouraged diplomacy.
Exam technique
- Focus on causation and escalation
Explain how each step brought more powers into the crisis and why they chose war over diplomacy. - Use the blank cheque and mobilizations as turning points
These are key details that can set your essay apart.
Common Mistake
- Writing about the assassination only. The war was not caused by the assassination itself, but by how countries responded.
- Forgetting that Austria-Hungary wanted a war with Serbia. This was not just a reaction to the murder.
- Blaming Germany entirely. Austria, Russia, and Serbia all played active roles. Show that multiple powers made risky decisions.
