Wilhelm II’s New Course
- Bismarck was dismissed in 1890.
- Kaiser Wilhelm II adopted a more aggressive foreign policy (Weltpolitik), leading to the non-renewal of the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, pushing Russia toward France.
- Franco-Russian Alliance (1894):
- France and Russia, both diplomatically isolated, signed a military alliance.
- France gained a powerful continental partner, and Russia got financial support for industrialization.
- Entente Cordiale (1904):
- A diplomatic understanding between France and Britain, settling colonial disputes in Africa.
- Though not a military alliance, it showed improving Anglo-French relations.
- Anglo-Russian Entente (1907):
- Britain and Russia resolved their colonial rivalries in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.
- This created the Triple Entente: France, Britain, and Russia, a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance.
Impact on International Tensions
- Polarization of Europe:
- The emergence of two rival blocs increased distrust and fear. The alliance system didn’t encourage peace. It made powers more confident in taking risks.
- Arms Race & Military Planning:
- Alliances encouraged countries to prepare for war. The expectation of allied support (e.g., Germany’s support for Austria-Hungary) reduced diplomatic restraint.
- Unpredictability and Miscalculation:
- Secret clauses and vague terms meant that alliances were often misunderstood. In 1914, leaders made assumptions about how allies would act. Many were totally wrong.
- Wilhelm II was ambitious, unpredictable, and eager to assert Germany’s power. He dismissed Bismarck in 1890 and took foreign policy into his own hands.
- Industrial and military strength fueling confidence
- Germany's booming economy and powerful army/navy made leaders believe they deserved more respect and control in world affairs.
- Internal distractions and political instability
- Wilhelm used aggressive foreign policy to distract from domestic issues (e.g., demands for democracy, social unrest).
Exam technique
- Don’t confuse “alliances” with “ententes”, Ententes weren’t official military promises. They were more like friendly agreements to cooperate.
- Also, don’t think alliances alone caused World War I. Instead, they made existing problems like nationalism, empire-building, and the arms race more dangerous and harder to control.
Impact on Other Countries
Britain
- Naval race triggered by German fleet-building
- Germany’s naval expansion (especially after the 1898 Navy Law) worried Britain and ended its “splendid isolation.”
- Britain responded with the Dreadnought and eventually formed alliances.
- Threat to empire and trade routes
- Germany's actions in Africa (e.g., Kruger Telegram) and Morocco challenged British interests and worsened relations.
- Germany's actions in Africa (e.g., Kruger Telegram) and Morocco challenged British interests and worsened relations.
Case study
The Naval Arms Race (1898–1912)
- Background: Germany passed several Navy Laws (1898, 1900, etc.) to create a fleet that could rival the Royal Navy.
- Effect: Britain saw this as a direct challenge. It launched the HMS Dreadnought in 1906, a game-changing battleship, triggering a naval arms race.
- By 1914: Germany had built 17 dreadnoughts; Britain had built 29.
- Outcome: Increased hostility and suspicion, leading Britain to abandon isolation and align with France (Entente Cordiale, 1904).
- Britain built the Dreadnought to stay ahead in power at sea. It was so advanced that all other ships became outdated.
- When Germany started building a similar navy, it made Britain nervous.
- This caused tension and made Britain become closer friends with France and Russia, creating the Triple Entente.
Exam technique
- Use the naval race as concrete evidence to show how German foreign policy shaped alliances.
- Think in terms of actions → perceptions → responses.
France
- Support for Moroccan independence (1905 & 1911 crises)
- Germany tried to weaken France’s influence in North Africa, leading to tensions.
- Both incidents backfired and pushed France closer to Britain.
Russia
- Strained relations after German refusal to renew Reinsurance Treaty (1890)
- Russia felt abandoned and turned toward France for support (Franco-Russian Alliance, 1894).
- Concern over German support for Austria-Hungary in the Balkans
- Russia saw Germany as backing its rival in the Balkans, increasing tensions.
Austria-Hungary
- Germany’s main ally and encouraged assertiveness
- Germany gave Austria-Hungary a “blank cheque” of support during crises (especially in the Balkans), emboldening Austrian aggression.
- Germany gave Austria-Hungary a “blank cheque” of support during crises (especially in the Balkans), emboldening Austrian aggression.
Common Mistake
- Don’t just list events.
- Focus on how and why Germany’s actions pushed other countries together (e.g., led to the Entente Cordiale or Triple Entente).
Hint
- Germany’s aggressive stance under Wilhelm II didn’t start the war alone, but it destabilized relationships, scared neighbors, and helped create an environment where war seemed inevitable.
Self review
- To what extent was Wilhelm II’s foreign policy responsible for the breakdown of the European diplomatic balance after 1890?
- Assess the impact of the alliance and entente system (1890–1914) on the growth of international tensions in Europe.
- How significant was the Anglo-German naval arms race in shaping Britain’s shift from “splendid isolation” to alignment with France and Russia?
