Why Did Colonies Seek Independence?
- Decolonisation reshaped the world map, creating most modern states in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
- It transformed global politics by ending European dominance and creating the Global South.
- It explains many modern conflicts, borders, and debates about identity, development, and inequality.
Definition
Decolonization
Decolonization is the process by which colonies gain independence from imperial powers and become self-governing nations. It usually happens through political negotiations, nationalist movements, resistance or armed struggle and the decline of European empires after WWII.
Example
- Africa
- Ghana (1957): First sub-Saharan African country to gain independence from Britain.
- Kenya (1963): Gained independence after the Mau Mau uprising and negotiations.
- Algeria (1962): Won independence from France after a long, violent war.
- Nigeria (1960): Achieved independence peacefully from Britain.
- Asia
- India & Pakistan (1947): End of British rule after massive nationalist movements.
- Indonesia (1949): Fought for independence from the Netherlands.
- Vietnam (1954): Freed from French rule after the First Indochina War.
- Philippines (1946): U.S. granted independence after WWII.
- Middle East
- Egypt (1922 / 1956): Gradual end of British influence; full control asserted after Suez Crisis.
- Iraq (1932): Gained independence from Britain.
- Caribbean
- Jamaica (1962): Independence from Britain.
- Trinidad and Tobago (1962): Also left the British Empire.
1. Rising Nationalism
- Colonised peoples began to see themselves as nations with distinct identity, history, and political rights.
- Western ideas like liberalism, self-determination, democracy, and later socialism inspired leaders.
- Symbols, flags, newspapers, and political parties strengthened national identity.
Note
- Once people start thinking “we” instead of “subjects,” independence becomes inevitable.
2. Economic Exploitation Created Resentment
- Colonies saw that wealth flowed outward to Europe, leaving local populations poor.
- Forced cash-crop economies caused famine, dependency, and inequality.
- Locals wanted control over their own resources, labour, and industries.
Note
- Economic nationalism grew out of the simple realisation: “Why are we working for someone else’s profit?”
3. World Wars Weakened European Powers
- WWII devastated Britain, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands: they couldn’t afford empires anymore.
- Colonised soldiers fought in global wars and returned asking:
“If we fought for freedom, why don’t we have it?”
Example
- Japan’s victories in Asia (1940–42) shattered the myth of European racial superiority.
- The psychological foundations of empire collapsed
4. Spread of Anti-Imperialist Ideologies
- Thinkers like Lenin, Fanon, Gandhi, and anti-colonial movements argued empire was unjust and exploitative.
- The UN promoted self-determination, and decolonisation gained international legitimacy.
- Newly independent countries inspired others in a domino effect.
Example
- India’s independence in 1947 inspired anti-colonial movements across Asia and Africa.
- Ghana’s independence in 1957 encouraged dozens of African nations to demand the same.
- Indonesia breaking from Dutch rule pushed nearby colonies to question European control.
- Algeria’s victory in 1962 motivated other French colonies to accelerate their own independence efforts.
- The collapse of the Portuguese Empire in 1974–75 triggered rapid independence in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau.
5. Local Resistance Movements Grew Strong
- From peaceful mass mobilisation (e.g., Gandhi’s civil disobedience)
to armed struggle (e.g., Algeria, Kenya, Vietnam),
resistance made colonial rule expensive and politically embarrassing. - Leaders like Nehru, Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Ho Chi Minh gave movements direction and global recognition.
6. Changing Attitudes in Europe
- After the horrors of WWII, holding territories by force became morally indefensible.
- European publics increasingly questioned the purpose of empire.
- Costs > benefits: colonies were expensive to run and maintain.
7. Cold War Dynamics Accelerated Independence
- USA + USSR both opposed “old empires” and courted new states as allies.
- Superpowers pressured European countries to grant independence.
- New nations used Cold War rivalry to win diplomatic, financial, and military support.
Case study
Algeria: Why Independence Was Demanded
- Why Algeria Was Different
- France treated Algeria as part of France (“French departments”).
- Pieds-noirs settlers dominated land, politics, and the economy.
- Indigenous Algerians had unequal citizenship, limited rights, and land confiscation.
- Why Algerians Sought Independence
- Political exclusion
- Government controlled by settlers and French officials.
- Voting system heavily favoured the settler minority.
- Economic inequality
- Best farmland given to settlers.
- Algerians pushed into low-paid labour and poor living conditions.
- Cultural repression
- French authorities suppressed Arabic language and Muslim institutions.
- Strengthened Algerian national identity in response.
- Impact of WWII
- Algerians fought for France expecting reforms.
- Discrimination continued; Sétif massacre (1945) showed peaceful reform was impossible.
- Rise of organised resistance
- FLN formed (1954) demanding independence.
- Guerrilla warfare and urban bombings challenged French rule.
- French torture and repression radicalised the population.
- International pressure
- UN criticism of French actions.
- Newly independent states + Cold War dynamics supported the FLN.
- Political exclusion
- Outcome
- Algerian War (1954–62) became too costly for France.
- Evian Accords (1962) granted Algeria independence.
Case study
India: Why Independence Was Demanded
- Why India Was Different
- Ruled by Britain for nearly 200 years, first through the East India Company, then directly after 1858.
- A vast, diverse population governed by a small British elite.
- Indians faced racial hierarchy, unequal political rights, and limited access to high office.
- Britain claimed it was “civilising” India while simultaneously denying Indians meaningful power.
- Why Indians Sought Independence
- Political exclusion
- Indians had no real control over laws or taxation.
- The Indian Civil Service was almost entirely British.
- Early reforms (e.g., 1919 Government of India Act) offered fake participation - Britain kept veto power.
- Economic inequality
- India became a source of raw materials (cotton, tea) and a market for British goods.
- Heavy taxation and famines were worsened by policies that served British interests.
- Local industries (like textiles) collapsed due to unfair competition.
- Cultural repression
- British education policies undermined traditional systems.
- Racism and paternalism reinforced the idea that Indians were “subjects,” not partners.
- National identity strengthened through literature, newspapers, and reform movements.
- Impact of WWII
- Britain dragged India into WWII without consulting Indian leaders.
- Wartime shortages and the Bengal Famine (1943) undermined British legitimacy.
- Indians questioned why they should fight for “freedom” Britain refused to give them.
- Rise of organised resistance
- Indian National Congress and Muslim League mobilised mass support.
- Gandhi’s non-violent resistance (Salt March, Quit India) united millions.
- Non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and strikes made India ungovernable.
- International pressure
- US and USSR both opposed old-style colonialism.
- Britain struggled financially after WWII and could no longer maintain rule.
- Outcome
- Post-WWII, Britain recognised India was too large and politically mobilised to control.
- Indian Independence Act (1947) created independent India and Pakistan.
- Mass migration and partition violence marked the transition but colonial rule ended.
- Political exclusion
Note
- Timeline of Decolonisation
- Early Roots (1918–1939)
- 1919: Wilson’s idea of self-determination inspires early nationalist movements.
- 1920s–30s: India, Egypt, Vietnam, and others develop organised independence movements.
- 1930s: Anti-colonial sentiment grows as economic depression exposes colonial inequalities.
- Decolonisation After WWII (The Turning Point)
- 1945: European empires weakened; UN Charter promotes self-determination.
- Colonised soldiers return home questioning imperial rule.
- Japan’s defeat ends European myth of racial superiority in Asia.
- Asia First (1947–1954)
- 1947: India & Pakistan gain independence.
- 1949: Indonesia declared independent from the Dutch.
- 1954: Vietnam defeats France at Dien Bien Phu → French empire collapses in Indochina.
- Africa’s Independence Wave (1957–1966)
- 1957: Ghana becomes first sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence.
- 1960: “Year of Africa”: 17 nations gain independence.
- 1962: Algeria becomes independent after a long war with France.
- Mid-1960s: Most of East and West Africa achieve independence.
- Late Decolonisation (1970s–1990s)
- 1974–75: Collapse of Portuguese dictatorship → Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau gain independence.
- 1980: Zimbabwe becomes independent.
- 1990: Namibia gains independence.
- 1994: End of apartheid in South Africa- often viewed as the symbolic final chapter of the decolonisation era.
- Early Roots (1918–1939)
Self review
- Why did WWII dramatically accelerate the pace of decolonisation across Asia and Africa?
- How did nationalism develop differently in various colonies, and what factors strengthened it?
- In what ways did economic exploitation make colonial rule unsustainable by the mid-20th century?
- How did the Cold War support or complicate decolonisation movements?
- Why did some colonies achieve independence peacefully while others, like Algeria or Vietnam, required prolonged armed struggle?
