Research Considerations
- When conducting research, psychologists must consider factors that influence the quality and trustworthiness of their findings.
- These considerations help ensure that the results are valid, reliable, and applicable to real-world situations.
Research considerations are critical for evaluating the quality of a study. They help determine if the findings are trustworthy and applicable beyond the specific research context.
Validity
- Validity refers to the extent to which a study measures what it claims to measure. There are several types of validity:
Internal Validity
- Definition: The degree to which the results of a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not other factors.
- Application: High internal validity means the study is well-controlled, with minimal confounding variables.
In Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study, internal validity was ensured by controlling the wording of questions to isolate its effect on memory distortion.
External Validity
- Definition: The extent to which the findings can be generalized beyond the study sample.
- Application: High external validity means the results are applicable to other populations, settings, or times.
Loftus and Palmer's findings on memory distortion may have limited external validity if the sample (college students) does not represent the broader population.
Content Validity
- Definition: The extent to which a test or measure covers the entire range of the concept being studied.
- Application: Ensures that all aspects of the concept are represented.
Loftus and Palmer's study focused on the influence of leading questions but did not address other factors affecting memory, such as stress or time elapsed since the event.
Face Validity
- Definition: The extent to which a test appears to measure what it claims to measure.
- Application: Relies on subjective judgment and is often assessed by experts or participants.
A questionnaire on anxiety has face validity if participants recognize the questions as relevant to anxiety.
Construct Validity
- Definition: The degree to which a test measures the theoretical construct it is intended to measure.
- Application: Requires evidence that the test correlates with other measures of the same construct.
A new intelligence test has construct validity if it correlates with established IQ tests.
When evaluating a study, consider which types of validity are most relevant. For example, internal validity is crucial for experiments, while external validity is key for field studies.
Reliability
- Reliability refers to the consistency of a study's results.
If a study is replicated and yields the same results, we can assume it is reliable.
Reliability does not guarantee validity. A study can be reliable but not valid if it consistently measures the wrong concept.
Think of validity and reliability like a dart and a dart board.
- If the bullseye is consistently hit, it is valid and reliable.
- If the bullseye consistently hits the outer areas, it is reliable but not valid.
Generalizability
- Generalizability refers to the extent to which findings can be applied to other populations, contexts, or cultures.
Populations
- Definition: The degree to which results apply to groups beyond the study sample.
- Application: Studies with diverse samples are more generalizable.
- A study on memory using only college students may not generalize to older adults.
- The use of college students in the sample may limit the generalizability of the findings to other age groups or populations.
Contexts
- Definition: The extent to which findings apply to different settings or situations.
- Application: Studies conducted in artificial environments may lack ecological validity.
- Laboratory studies may not generalize to real-world settings.
- The artificial setting of the experiment may limit its ecological validity, as real-life eyewitness situations are more complex and emotionally charged.
Cultures
- Definition: The applicability of findings across different cultural groups.
- Application: Cross-cultural research enhances generalizability.
A study on conformity in Western cultures may not generalize to collectivist societies.
Biases
- Biases can distort research findings and reduce their validity.
Researcher Bias
- Definition: When researchers' expectations influence the study's outcomes.
- Application: Can be minimized through double-blind procedures.
If researchers in Loftus and Palmer's study had unintentionally communicated their expectations to participants, it could have influenced the results.
Participant Bias
- Definition: When participants alter their behavior based on their perceptions of the study.
- Application: Includes demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
- Participants may respond in ways they think are expected or socially acceptable, introducing social desirability bias.
- Participants may have guessed the study's aim and adjusted their responses accordingly, introducing demand characteristics.
Reflexivity
- Reflexivity involves acknowledging the researcher's influence on the study.
Process
- Definition: Researchers reflect on how their background, beliefs, and interactions may affect the research.
- Application: Enhances transparency and credibility.
Reflexivity is especially important in qualitative research, where the researcher's role is more prominent.
Transferability
- Transferability refers to the extent to which qualitative findings can be applied to other contexts.
Application
- Definition: Relies on providing detailed descriptions of the research context.
- Application: Allows readers to judge whether the findings are relevant to their own situations.
For transferability, we take into account the characteristics of the sample, the setting of the study, and temporal context.
Credibility
- Credibility refers to the trustworthiness of research findings.
Triangulation
- Definition: Using multiple methods, sources, or researchers to cross-check findings.
- Application: Enhances the accuracy and depth of results.
Transparency
- Definition: Providing clear and detailed descriptions of the research process.
- Application: Allows others to evaluate and replicate the study.
Ethical Considerations
- Ethical considerations are integral to research design and implementation.
Informed Consent
- Definition: Participants must be fully informed about the study and agree to participate.
- Application: Ensures autonomy and respect for participants.
Protection from Harm
- Definition: Researchers must minimize physical and psychological harm.
- Application: Includes debriefing participants after the study.
Confidentiality
- Definition: Participants' data must be kept private and secure.
- Application: Protects participants' identities.
Withdrawal Rights
- Definition: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.
- Application: Ensures voluntary participation.
Ethical considerations are not just about protecting participants; they also enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of the research.
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Aim
To investigate how the wording of questions influences eyewitness memory.
Method
- Laboratory experiment with independent measures design.
- Participants watched video clips of car accidents and answered questions about the events.
Results
- Participants' speed estimates varied based on the verb used in the critical question (e.g., "smashed" led to higher estimates than "contacted").
- Participants exposed to the word "smashed" were more likely to report seeing broken glass, even though none was present.
Conclusion
- The wording of questions can distort memory, supporting the reconstructive nature of memory.
- Distinguish between reliability and validity.
- How might bias affect generalizability?
- How might reflexivity affect generalizability?
