1.1 Bias Questionbank

Morales and Jensen (2020) investigated how stigma affects willingness to seek treatment for depression. Their aim was to examine whether negative attitudes toward therapy predicted lower treatment-seeking behaviour.

A sample of 400 university students completed anonymous surveys about their attitudes toward mental health treatment and whether they had ever sought therapy. Questions assessed perceived stigma (“Most people think less of someone who goes to therapy”) and personal stigma (“I would feel embarrassed if I sought therapy”).

Results showed that high stigma—especially personal stigma—was strongly associated with lower willingness to seek treatment.

[Note: Fictionalised but based on Corrigan’s stigma research.]

Chen and Alvarez (2015) investigated how children develop theory of mind across cultures. Their aim was to examine whether cultural differences in communication norms affect the age at which children succeed in false-belief tasks.

The study involved 200 children aged 4–8 from two countries: Country A, where parents encouraged early discussion of thoughts and feelings, and Country B, where such discussions were less common. Children were given a standard false-belief test, such as the “Sally-Anne” task, in which they had to predict where a character would search for an object that had been moved without their knowledge.

Results showed that children in Country A typically passed the task by age 5, while children in Country B often did not succeed until age 7 or 8. Researchers concluded that cultural norms around discussing mental states influence the developmental timeline of theory of mind.

[Note: Fictionalised but inspired by cross-cultural research into theory of mind development, e.g., Wellman et al. (2001).]

Rodriguez and Leung (2016) studied whether different revision strategies influence long-term academic performance. The aim was to compare the effectiveness of spaced practice versus cramming in preparing for exams.

The sample included 120 university students randomly assigned to two conditions. In the spaced practice condition, students studied course material in weekly sessions across six weeks. In the cramming condition, students studied the same material for an equivalent total time but in a single long session one day before the exam. Performance was assessed through two tests: one taken immediately after the study period, and another delayed test six weeks later.

Results showed that while both groups performed similarly on the immediate test, students in the spaced practice group scored significantly higher on the delayed test, suggesting better retention. Researchers noted that some students in the spaced condition dropped out due to time constraints.

[Note: Fictionalised but based on empirical findings in cognitive psychology on distributed vs. massed practice (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2006).]

Kumar and Delgado (2019) examined predictors of divorce in a 10-year longitudinal study of married couples. Their aim was to identify whether communication patterns and stress regulation during conflicts predicted long-term relationship outcomes.

The study followed 150 couples from early marriage over a decade. Every two years, couples completed questionnaires about marital satisfaction and stress levels. In addition, they participated in videotaped conflict-resolution tasks where they discussed ongoing disagreements while researchers coded their interactions for hostility, defensiveness, and problem-solving strategies. Salivary cortisol samples were collected to measure physiological stress.

Results indicated that couples who displayed high levels of hostility and poor stress regulation during conflict were significantly more likely to divorce within ten years. By contrast, couples who used positive communication strategies and showed stable cortisol levels were more likely to remain married. Researchers noted some attrition; many couples dropped out.

[Note: Fictionalised but draws on Gottman’s research.]

Miller and Svensson (2018) investigated whether background noise affects working memory in school-age children. The aim was to test if environmental distractions impair cognitive performance and whether all children are equally affected.

The study recruited 90 students aged 11–13 from a single urban school. Participants were asked to recall sequences of numbers of increasing length (digit span tasks). In the “quiet” condition, tasks were completed in a silent classroom. In the “noise” condition, the same tasks were performed with background sounds of chatter, footsteps, and occasional announcements—replicating the sounds of a busy hallway. The order of conditions was counterbalanced to reduce order effects.

Results showed that, on average, students recalled fewer digits in the noise condition compared to the quiet condition. However, there were individual differences: about one-third of the participants performed equally well in both conditions, suggesting resilience to distraction. Researchers concluded that while background noise negatively affects working memory for most students, individual differences must be considered.

[Note: Fictionalised but inspired by cognitive environmental distraction research.]