1.2 Causality Questionbank

Okafor and Stein (2012) conducted an experimental study on whether oxytocin influences cooperation in social interactions. The aim was to test if oxytocin administration increases trust and cooperative behaviour.

Eighty participants were randomly assigned to inhale either oxytocin or a placebo before engaging in a series of trust games. In these games, Player 1 was given a sum of money and could choose how much to send to Player 2, knowing that the amount sent would be tripled. Player 2 then decided how much to return to Player 1. Cooperation was measured by how much participants sent and returned.

Results showed that participants who received oxytocin sent significantly more money and returned larger amounts, suggesting enhanced cooperation. However, cultural differences emerged: the effect was stronger in participants from collectivist backgrounds than in individualist ones.

[Note: Fictionalised but draws on Kosfeld et al. (2005) and later cultural studies.]

Rodriguez and Leung (2016) studied whether different revision strategies influence long-term academic performance. The aim was to compare the effectiveness of spaced practice versus cramming in preparing for exams.

The sample included 120 university students randomly assigned to two conditions. In the spaced practice condition, students studied course material in weekly sessions across six weeks. In the cramming condition, students studied the same material for an equivalent total time but in a single long session one day before the exam. Performance was assessed through two tests: one taken immediately after the study period, and another delayed test six weeks later.

Results showed that while both groups performed similarly on the immediate test, students in the spaced practice group scored significantly higher on the delayed test, suggesting better retention. Researchers noted that some students in the spaced condition dropped out due to time constraints.

[Note: Fictionalised but based on empirical findings in cognitive psychology on distributed vs. massed practice (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2006).]

Kumar and Delgado (2019) examined predictors of divorce in a 10-year longitudinal study of married couples. Their aim was to identify whether communication patterns and stress regulation during conflicts predicted long-term relationship outcomes.

The study followed 150 couples from early marriage over a decade. Every two years, couples completed questionnaires about marital satisfaction and stress levels. In addition, they participated in videotaped conflict-resolution tasks where they discussed ongoing disagreements while researchers coded their interactions for hostility, defensiveness, and problem-solving strategies. Salivary cortisol samples were collected to measure physiological stress.

Results indicated that couples who displayed high levels of hostility and poor stress regulation during conflict were significantly more likely to divorce within ten years. By contrast, couples who used positive communication strategies and showed stable cortisol levels were more likely to remain married. Researchers noted some attrition; many couples dropped out.

[Note: Fictionalised but draws on Gottman’s research.]

Miller and Svensson (2018) investigated whether background noise affects working memory in school-age children. The aim was to test if environmental distractions impair cognitive performance and whether all children are equally affected.

The study recruited 90 students aged 11–13 from a single urban school. Participants were asked to recall sequences of numbers of increasing length (digit span tasks). In the “quiet” condition, tasks were completed in a silent classroom. In the “noise” condition, the same tasks were performed with background sounds of chatter, footsteps, and occasional announcements—replicating the sounds of a busy hallway. The order of conditions was counterbalanced to reduce order effects.

Results showed that, on average, students recalled fewer digits in the noise condition compared to the quiet condition. However, there were individual differences: about one-third of the participants performed equally well in both conditions, suggesting resilience to distraction. Researchers concluded that while background noise negatively affects working memory for most students, individual differences must be considered.

[Note: Fictionalised but inspired by cognitive environmental distraction research.]

Chen and Ramirez (2015) investigated how acculturation influenced memory strategies in immigrant children. Acculturation refers to the process of adapting to a new culture, and the researchers were interested in whether this cultural shift would be reflected in children’s cognitive processes.

The sample included 120 children aged 10–12 who had recently immigrated to a large metropolitan city. Over four years, participants completed free-recall memory tasks at three points in time. Each task involved recalling two types of word lists: one that contained culturally familiar items (e.g., local foods, holidays, household objects) and another with culturally unfamiliar items (e.g., foreign tools, traditions, or animals). Teachers were also asked to provide reports about each child’s level of social integration, which researchers used to classify students into “integrated” or “isolated” groups.

Results showed that children in the integrated group increasingly used categorical clustering strategies (organising words by meaning) over time, while children in the isolated group primarily relied on rote rehearsal (repeating words in order). The researchers concluded that acculturation processes are linked to changes in memory strategies.

[Note: Fictionalised but inspired by research on acculturation and cognition.]