The Outbreak of War Notes

The Outbreak of War

The Manchurian Crisis: A Turning Point in Japanese Expansion

1. On September 18, 1931, the Mukden Incident occurred when the Kwantung Army staged an explosion on the South Manchurian Railway.
2. This fabricated event provided a pretext for Japan to invade Manchuria, despite orders from Tokyo to avoid escalation.
3. By early 1932, Japan had established the puppet state of Manchukuo, with Pu Yi, the last emperor of China, as its nominal ruler.

The Impact of the Great Depression

1. The Great Depression of 1929 devastated Japan's economy, leading to:
   1. A collapse in exports, particularly silk, which fell to less than one-fifth of its 1923 value.
   2. Widespread poverty and unemployment, affecting over three million people.
   3. Manchuria was seen as a solution to these economic woes, offering:
      1. Raw materials: Coal, iron, and timber.
      2. Living space: For Japan's growing population.
      3. Markets: For Japanese manufactured goods.

Political Instability in China

1. China's internal divisions made it vulnerable to Japanese aggression:
   1. The Guomindang (GMD), led by Jiang Jieshi, focused on defeating the Communists rather than resisting Japan.
   2. The Northern Expedition (1926-1928) aimed to unify China but left the country fragmented and weakened.
   3. The assassination of warlord Zhang Zuolin by the Kwantung Army in 1928 destabilized Manchuria, paving the way for Japanese intervention.

The Rise of Militarism in Japan

1. The Kwantung Army's actions in Manchuria highlighted the growing power of the military, which operated with impunity.
2. Political assassinations, such as the murder of Prime Minister Inukai in 1932, further weakened civilian government control.
3. The military's influence was bolstered by public support, as many Japanese viewed the army as a defender of national interests.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1937

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident

1. On July 7, 1937, a skirmish between Japanese and Chinese troops near Beijing escalated into a full-scale conflict.
2. Unlike the Mukden Incident, this clash was not premeditated, but it quickly spiraled out of control due to the military's autonomy and aggressive stance.

The Rape of Nanjing

1. In December 1937, Japanese forces captured Nanjing, the Chinese capital, and committed widespread atrocities, including:
   1. The massacre of an estimated 300,000 civilians and disarmed soldiers.
   2. The rape of 30,000 women.
   3. Looting and destruction of the city.

Chinese Resistance and Japanese Overreach

1. Despite initial Japanese victories, China refused to surrender, leading to a prolonged and costly war.
2. Japan's supply lines became overstretched, and its forces faced guerrilla attacks from both the GMD and Communist forces.

The Road to Pearl Harbor

Economic Sanctions and the Oil Embargo

1. Japan's expansion into Indo-China in 1940 prompted the United States to impose an oil embargo, crippling Japan's war effort.
2. Faced with the prospect of economic collapse, Japan saw war as the only option to secure resources in Southeast Asia.

The Tripartite Pact and the Neutrality Pact

1. In September 1940, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, aligning itself with the Axis Powers.
2. In April 1941, Japan secured its northern border by signing a Neutrality Pact with the Soviet Union, allowing it to focus on expansion in Southeast Asia.

The Attack on Pearl Harbor

1. On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, hoping to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet.
2. The attack was part of a broader strategy to seize Southeast Asian territories before the United States could respond.

Historiographical Perspectives

Japanese Historians

1. Left-wing historians: View the war as a "15-year war" beginning with the Manchurian Incident, blaming militarist and capitalist elites.
2. Right-wing historians: Argue that Japan was liberating Asia from Western colonialism and was forced into war by the U.S. oil embargo.

Western Historians

1. Orthodox view: Japan waged a war of aggression, with Pearl Harbor as clear evidence of its expansionist ambitions.
2. Revisionist view: Some argue that the U.S. provoked Japan into war, citing the oil embargo and Roosevelt's policies.