The Role of France, Belgium, and the United States in the Rwandan Genocide
France
NoteWhy was France involved in Rwanda in the first place?
- Francophonie and International Ties
- After independence in 1962, Rwanda joined the Francophonie, a group of French-speaking countries.
- La Francophonie (OIF) is a formal international organisation of countries that speak French or have strong cultural and linguistic ties.
- It was officially created in 1970, though the idea existed earlier.
- Language and Diplomacy
- French became the main language of government, education, and diplomacy in Rwanda.
- This drew France in, as part of its foreign policy focused on supporting and protecting French-speaking countries, especially in Africa.
- Francafrique Policy
- Under President François Mitterrand, France pursued the “Francafrique” Policy.
- This meant maintaining strong ties with former African colonies and Francophone states.
- Rwanda, though never a French colony, was seen as a key Francophone ally.
- Support for the Hutu-led Government (1990–1993)
- From 1990 to late 1993, France openly backed Rwanda’s Hutu-led government against the Tutsi-dominated RPF rebels.
- While encouraging peace talks like the Arusha Accords, France simultaneously trained the Rwandan army and Interahamwe militia.
- In October 1990, France sent 600 elite troops to protect Kigali during the initial RPF invasion. French operatives remained even after official troop withdrawals.
- Military Cooperation and Alliance
- In 1975 and again in the late 1980s, France signed military cooperation agreements with Rwanda, training and arming the Rwandan army (FAR) and sending military advisors.
- When the RPF invaded in 1990, France saw it as a threat to its ally and external aggression, stepping in to help.
- France maintained a long-standing alliance with President Juvénal Habyarimana, whose government was dominated by the Hutu elite.
- France continued to see Habyarimana as the legitimate head of state despite growing evidence of ethnic violence.
- The RPF, composed mainly of Tutsi exiles from Uganda, was framed as foreign-backed rebels. This framing justified continued French military and political support.
- France labeled the RPF as “Khmer Noir,” linking them to Cambodia’s Khmer Rouge, which France had ironically supported decades earlier.
- Operation Amaryllis (April 1994)
- Days after Habyarimana’s assassination, France launched Operation Amaryllis, sending 500 soldiers to evacuate mainly Western foreigners.
- The operation’s primary objective was to evacuate French citizens (including diplomats, aid workers, missionaries, and families).
- France also evacuated other European and Western nationals (Belgian, American, other non-African expatriates, UN personnel, NGO staff, businesspeople).
- In selective cases, France evacuated Rwandan nationals, particularly those connected to the Hutu-led government (relatives of elites, military members, ruling party MRND).
- Ordinary Rwandan civilians, including Tutsis and moderate Hutus, were excluded. Many Rwandan staff for embassies or NGOs were left behind despite pleas for protection.
- This highlighted what France could have done early to prevent violence but chose not to.
- Support for the Interim Hutu Government
- France maintained close relations with the interim Hutu government in April–May 1994, providing political support.
- Reports suggest continued arms shipments despite UN embargoes.
- French personnel, possibly mercenaries, were seen around Kigali. Authorities denied knowledge but were criticized for supporting genocidal leaders.
- Operation Turquoise (June 1994)
- France led a UN-backed intervention, Operation Turquoise, officially aimed at protecting civilians.
- About 2,500 French troops were deployed.
- A “safe zone” was created along the Rwanda–Zaire border.
- While many Tutsi lives were saved, numerous Hutu perpetrators used the safe zone to flee into Zaire.
- The RPF condemned the operation as protecting the failing Hutu regime and criticized coordination problems between UNAMIR and French troops.
- Aftermath and Controversy
- Evidence implicating France in enabling genocide through support and negligence has long been debated.
- French government inquiries exonerated France.
- France was the only country to recognize the genocidal interim government and granted asylum to some fugitives.
- Public debates and trials began decades later, continuing to strain Rwanda–France relations.
The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia (1975-1979)
- The Khmer Rouge was a radical communist regime that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979, led by Pol Pot. It aimed to transform the country into a classless, agrarian utopia, but its policies resulted in one of the most devastating genocides of the 20th century.
- The Khmer Rouge abolished money, schools, religion, private property, and urban life in an attempt to create a purely rural, peasant society. Intellectuals, professionals, religious leaders, and even those wearing glasses were targeted as threats to the regime. The regime forced millions to leave cities and work in brutal conditions in the countryside, with mass starvation and overwork becoming widespread.
- Between 1.7 and 2 million people, around a quarter of Cambodia’s population, died under the Khmer Rouge. Many were executed in detention centres such as the infamous Tuol Sleng (S-21) prison, while others perished from forced labour, disease, and starvation. The genocide was driven by paranoia, ideological purges, and a desire to eliminate all opposition.
- The regime collapsed when Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1979, ousting the Khmer Rouge and installing a new government. Despite their crimes, Khmer Rouge leaders avoided justice for decades. It wasn’t until the 2000s that international and Cambodian tribunals began prosecuting key figures.
The Role of France in the Rwandan Genocide
- Defenses of France’s Role
- Some historians argue that France acted in line with international norms and was motivated by humanitarian concerns.
- Gérard Prunier notes that France was “acting within a Cold War mindset”, viewing the Rwandan government as a legitimate ally in a Francophone region threatened by Anglophone influence (The Rwanda Crisis, 1995).
- Supporters of Operation Turquoise argue it saved tens of thousands of lives and filled a gap left by UN inaction.
- The Duclert Report (2021), commissioned by President Macron, acknowledged French failures but concluded there was no evidence of complicity in the genocide itself.
- Criticism of France’s Role
- Other scholars and investigators argue France supported a regime responsible for genocide.
- Historian Linda Melvern claims France “armed, trained, and politically backed” the Hutu government even as ethnic tensions escalated (A People Betrayed, 2000).
- Human rights groups, including Human Rights Watch, state France’s military and diplomatic support enabled mass killings.
- Critics also condemn Operation Turquoise for creating a safe corridor for génocidaires to escape into Zaire.
- The Mucyo Commission Report (2008, Rwanda) directly accused France of active complicity in the genocide.
Belgium
NoteWhy did Belgium withdraw from Rwanda?
- Killing of Belgian Peacekeepers
- On the first day of the genocide, 10 Belgian soldiers assigned to protect Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana were captured, tortured, and murdered by Rwandan government forces.
- The images of their mutilated bodies caused outrage and grief in Belgium.
- Public Opinion and Government Panic
- Belgian public opinion became divided, with many demanding a full withdrawal to avoid further casualties in what seemed like a hopeless mission.
- The government panicked and chose to pull out its troops rather than risk more lives or appear responsible for additional violence.
- Accusations and Blame
- Belgian forces were falsely accused of involvement in President Habyarimana’s assassination, a claim extremists used to justify the killing of the peacekeepers.
- This fueled a sense of vulnerability and unease, reinforcing the decision to withdraw.
- Colonial Legacy
