Background
- After the attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941), fear of espionage and racial prejudice led to widespread suspicion of people of Japanese ancestry throughout the Americas.
- Governments across the hemisphere responded with internment, deportation, and property confiscation, often justified as security measures.
- These actions reflected both wartime paranoia and pre-existing anti-Asian sentiment, revealing racial inequality in democratic societies.
Definition
Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)
- On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise aerial attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
Japanese Americans
- In February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, allowing the military to remove people from designated “military zones.”
- More than 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated from the U.S. West Coast to War Relocation Authority (WRA) camps.
- About two-thirds were U.S. citizens, known as Nisei, while the rest were Issei (Japanese-born immigrants denied citizenship).
- Families were confined in isolated camps such as Manzanar (California) and Topaz (Utah) with poor living conditions and limited freedom.
- Korematsu v. United States (1944) upheld the legality of internment, though it was later condemned as unconstitutional.
- Many internees lost homes, farms, and businesses due to forced sales or confiscation.
- The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 formally apologized and granted reparations to surviving internees.
Definition
Executive Order 9066
- Law authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from military zones.
Japanese Latin Americans
- The United States pressured several Latin American countries to detain or deport people of Japanese descent to prevent Axis influence in the region.
- About 2,300 Japanese Latin Americans were forcibly taken from Peru, Panama, and other nations to the United States.
- Many were held in internment camps in Texas and used in prisoner exchanges with Japan, even though most had no ties to the Japanese government.
- Families lost property and citizenship, and after the war, many were not allowed to return home, becoming stateless.
- The U.S. government did not issue formal reparations to most Japanese Latin Americans until limited settlements were offered in the 1990s.
Definition
Internment
- Confinement of civilians during wartime due to nationality or ethnicity.
Japanese Canadians
- After Japan’s entry into the war, the Canadian government classified Japanese Canadians as “enemy aliens.”
- More than 22,000 people of Japanese ancestry were forcibly relocated from the Pacific coast to internment camps in British Columbia.
- Their homes, fishing boats, and businesses were confiscated and sold by the government.
- Men were often separated from families and sent to road construction and labor camps.
- The Canadian government apologized in 1988 under Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and provided financial compensation to survivors.
| Country/Region | Government Actions | Consequences and Outcomes |
|---|---|---|
| United States (Japanese Americans) | Executive Order 9066 in 1942 authorized the forced relocation and internment of people of Japanese ancestry in War Relocation Authority camps. Property, homes, and businesses were taken by the government. More than 120,000 people were affected, most of them U.S. citizens. | Families lived in harsh and isolated camps such as Manzanar and Topaz. They lost land, income, and civil rights. In 1988, the Civil Liberties Act offered an official apology and financial reparations. |
| Latin America (Japanese Latin Americans) | Under pressure from the United States, several Latin American governments, especially Peru, deported residents of Japanese descent. About 2,300 people were sent to internment camps in the United States and some were used in prisoner exchanges with Japan. | Many became stateless and were not allowed to return to their home countries. They lost property and citizenship. Limited compensation was granted decades later in the 1990s. |
| Canada (Japanese Canadians) | The Canadian government labeled Japanese Canadians as enemy aliens and relocated them away from the Pacific coast. Property, businesses, and fishing boats were seized and sold by the state. | More than 22,000 people were confined in inland camps and separated from their families. They suffered major financial losses. In 1988, the government issued a formal apology and provided compensation. |
Exam technique
- Compare different national responses and emphasize how U.S. policy influenced Latin American and Canadian actions.
- Link this topic to broader themes of race, civil liberties, and wartime nationalism.
- Include vocabulary terms such as Executive Order 9066, Deportation, Enemy Aliens, and Reparations for precision.
Common Mistake
- Treating all Japanese communities in the Americas as one group without recognizing differences in policy, citizenship, and legal rights.
- Forgetting that many internees were citizens of their countries, not enemy aliens.
- Failing to mention Latin American deportations, which were directly influenced by U.S. policy.
- Describing the camps only as security measures and ignoring the racial prejudice and economic motives behind internment.
Self review
- Assess how far wartime fear and racism, rather than national security, explain the internment of Japanese Americans, Latin Americans, and Canadians.
- To what extent did postwar reparations address the injustices experienced by Japanese communities in the Americas?
- Evaluate the role of U.S. influence in shaping Latin American and Canadian policies toward their Japanese populations during the war.
