The Spanish–American War (1898)
- Background
- Tensions rose after the explosion of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana; the U.S. declared war on Spain, citing the defense of Cuban and Filipino independence.
- American Expansionism
- The war reflected U.S. interest in overseas colonies and control of Pacific trade routes.
- Battle of Manila Bay (May 1898)
- U.S. Admiral George Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet, ending Spanish naval power in Asia.
- Filipino Involvement
- Emilio Aguinaldo and Filipino revolutionaries allied with the U.S. to defeat Spain, believing independence would follow.
- Treaty of Paris (1898)
- Ended the war; Spain ceded the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the U.S. for $20 million without Filipino consent.
Definition
Expansionism
- U.S. policy of acquiring territories abroad for economic and strategic purposes.
Definition
Treaty of Paris (1898)
- Agreement transferring the Philippines from Spain to the U.S.
Case study
The Spanish–American War and the Betrayal of Filipino Independence
U.S.–Filipino Alliance
- Aguinaldo returned from exile with U.S. support to lead revolutionary forces.
- Filipinos helped capture most of the Philippines from Spain by mid-1898.
- The U.S. presented itself as a liberator, encouraging hopes for freedom.
- Secret U.S. negotiations with Spain ignored Filipino leaders.
- Independence was declared on June 12, 1898, but not recognized by the U.S.
Consequences
- Filipinos felt betrayed when the U.S. claimed sovereignty under the Treaty of Paris.
- Tensions led to the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).
- The war marked the shift from liberation to colonization.
- Thousands of civilians died due to warfare and disease.
- Established U.S. dominance in the Pacific.
U.S. Colonial Rule in the Philippines (1898–1946)
- Philippine–American War (1899–1902)
- Aguinaldo’s forces resisted U.S. control but were defeated; the U.S. established full colonial rule.
- Military Government
- Initially ruled by the U.S. Army; later replaced by a civil government led by William Howard Taft (1901).
- Infrastructure and Education
- Americans built roads, bridges, and public schools; introduced English as the official language of instruction.
- Political Development
- Creation of the Philippine Assembly (1907) and gradual steps toward self-government.
- Social Hierarchy
- A new class of American-educated Filipino elites emerged, loyal to U.S. ideals but increasingly nationalist.
Definition
Philippine–American War
- Armed conflict (1899–1902) between Filipino revolutionaries and U.S. forces.
Definition
William Howard Taft
- First U.S. civilian governor who promoted “benevolent assimilation.”
Case study
Causes and Conflict
- Filipino leaders rejected the Treaty of Paris and declared independence.
- War began in Manila (1899) between U.S. troops and Filipino nationalists.
- Aguinaldo led guerrilla resistance against a better-armed U.S. army.
- U.S. forces used scorched-earth tactics and reconcentration camps to suppress rebels.
- The conflict caused massive civilian casualties and destruction.
Outcomes
- Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, ending organized resistance.
- U.S. gained full colonial control and began reconstruction.
- The war left a legacy of resentment and nationalism.
- Filipino independence movements continued underground.
- Set the stage for later constitutional reforms and self-government.
Economic, Social, and Cultural Effects of American Colonialism
- Economic Modernization
- The U.S. introduced land reforms, encouraged cash crops (sugar, hemp, coconut), and opened trade with America.
- Public Education System
- Established free elementary education, promoting literacy and democratic values.
- Cultural Influence
- Western ideals, English language, and American culture (music, cinema, fashion) spread widely.
- Urbanization and Media
- Manila developed modern infrastructure and became a hub of print journalism and intellectual debate.
- Rise of Filipino Nationalism
- Despite reforms, unequal power fueled new independence movements; groups like the Nacionalista Party (1907) pushed for self-rule.
Definition
Nacionalista Party
- Political party formed in 1907 advocating independence through peaceful means.
Definition
Self-Government
- Gradual transfer of power from colonial rulers to Filipino representatives.
Common Mistake
- Seeing the U.S. as purely benevolent: Reforms coexisted with military suppression and economic exploitation.
- Forgetting Filipino agency: Nationalism continued to grow despite American control.
- Confusing wars: The Spanish–American War (1898) was against Spain; the Philippine–American War (1899–1902)was against the U.S.
Exam technique
- Distinguish Phases: Divide essay into Spanish–American War → Philippine–American War → U.S. reforms.
- Use Leaders and Events: Mention Dewey, Aguinaldo, and the Treaty of Paris.
- Assess Both Sides: Weigh modernization benefits against loss of independence.
Theory of Knowledge
- Can “civilizing” missions ever be moral if imposed by force?
- The U.S. claimed to bring democracy and education, yet did so through war and colonization, challenging the ethics of imperial reform.
Self review
- Examine the causes and results of the Spanish–American War and its impact on the Philippines.
- To what extent did U.S. colonial rule modernize or exploit the Philippines?
- Assess the significance of the Philippine–American War in shaping Filipino nationalism.
