Long-Term Causes: Political and Economic Factors
- By the late 19th century, Spain’s colonial empire was in decline, but it still controlled Cuba and the Philippines, two regions of high strategic and economic value.
- The U.S. had significant economic investments in Cuba, particularly in sugar plantations and trade, making stability in the island vital to American business interests.
- Cuban nationalists had been fighting for independence since the Ten Years’ War (1868–1878), inspiring sympathy in the U.S. and drawing comparisons to America’s own revolutionary past.
- U.S. policymakers increasingly believed that the removal of Spain from the hemisphere aligned with the Monroe Doctrine’s vision of excluding European powers from the Americas.
Definition
Monroe Doctrine
A U.S. policy (1823) declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits to further European colonization or interference.
Immediate Causes: Public Pressure and Media Influence
- In the 1890s, yellow journalism (sensationalized reporting by newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer) exaggerated Spanish atrocities in Cuba, fueling public outrage.
- The publication of the De Lôme Letter (1898), in which a Spanish diplomat insulted President William McKinley, further inflamed American nationalism.
- The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 266 sailors, was blamed on Spain (despite unclear evidence), becoming the final spark for war.
- The rallying cry “Remember the Maine!” united the public behind military action.
The Road to War : Cuba’s Struggle for Independence
- Cuban rebels, led by José Martí, launched a renewed war of independence in 1895 against Spanish rule, which responded with brutal counter insurgency tactics.
- Spanish General Valeriano Weyler introduced reconcentration camps, forcing civilians into guarded zones to cut off rebel support, resulting in widespread famine and disease.
- American media portrayed Weyler as the “Butcher of Cuba,” amplifying calls for U.S. humanitarian intervention.
- U.S. business interests, facing economic disruption from the conflict, pressured Washington to act.
- These events combined moral sympathy, strategic calculation, and media sensationalism into a powerful justification for war.
The War Itself: Modernization and Expansion
- The U.S. declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898, vowing to liberate Cuba but also eyeing broader imperial opportunities.
- The conflict demonstrated the impact of modernization: industrial capacity, steam-powered fleets, and telegraph communication allowed rapid mobilization.
- Admiral George Dewey’s victory at Manila Bay (Philippines) on May 1, 1898, destroyed the Spanish Pacific fleet in a single morning, showcasing American naval dominance.
