Long-Term Causes: Political and Economic Factors
- By the late 19th century, Spain’s colonial empire was in decline, but it still controlled Cuba and the Philippines, two regions of high strategic and economic value.
- The U.S. had significant economic investments in Cuba, particularly in sugar plantations and trade, making stability in the island vital to American business interests.
- Cuban nationalists had been fighting for independence since the Ten Years’ War (1868–1878), inspiring sympathy in the U.S. and drawing comparisons to America’s own revolutionary past.
- U.S. policymakers increasingly believed that the removal of Spain from the hemisphere aligned with the Monroe Doctrine’s vision of excluding European powers from the Americas.
Definition
Monroe Doctrine
A U.S. policy (1823) declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits to further European colonization or interference.
Immediate Causes: Public Pressure and Media Influence
- In the 1890s, yellow journalism (sensationalized reporting by newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer) exaggerated Spanish atrocities in Cuba, fueling public outrage.
- The publication of the De Lôme Letter (1898), in which a Spanish diplomat insulted President William McKinley, further inflamed American nationalism.
- The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 266 sailors, was blamed on Spain (despite unclear evidence), becoming the final spark for war.
- The rallying cry “Remember the Maine!” united the public behind military action.
Case study
The Road to War : Cuba’s Struggle for Independence
- Cuban rebels, led by José Martí, launched a renewed war of independence in 1895 against Spanish rule, which responded with brutal counter insurgency tactics.
- Spanish General Valeriano Weyler introduced reconcentration camps, forcing civilians into guarded zones to cut off rebel support, resulting in widespread famine and disease.
- American media portrayed Weyler as the “Butcher of Cuba,” amplifying calls for U.S. humanitarian intervention.
- U.S. business interests, facing economic disruption from the conflict, pressured Washington to act.
- These events combined moral sympathy, strategic calculation, and media sensationalism into a powerful justification for war.
The War Itself: Modernization and Expansion
- The U.S. declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898, vowing to liberate Cuba but also eyeing broader imperial opportunities.
- The conflict demonstrated the impact of modernization: industrial capacity, steam-powered fleets, and telegraph communication allowed rapid mobilization.
- Admiral George Dewey’s victory at Manila Bay (Philippines) on May 1, 1898, destroyed the Spanish Pacific fleet in a single morning, showcasing American naval dominance.
- In the Caribbean, U.S. troops, including the Rough Riders, a volunteer cavalry led by Theodore Roosevelt, captured San Juan Hill and Santiago de Cuba.
- By August, Spain requested peace; the Treaty of Paris (1898) formally ended the war.
Definition
Rough Riders
A volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish–American War, celebrated for its role in the Battle of San Juan Hill.
Case study
The Philippines and the Global Impact of the War
- The U.S. victory in the Philippines revealed its new global ambitions.
- President McKinley justified annexation by claiming it was America’s duty to “civilize and Christianize” the islands, despite the fact that most Filipinos were already Catholic.
- Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, initially supported the U.S. against Spain but later resisted American occupation in the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).
- This brutal conflict, which killed over 200,000 Filipinos, exposed contradictions between American democratic ideals and imperial practice.
- The annexation established the U.S. as a Pacific power, extending influence toward China and Southeast Asia, and marked the beginning of American overseas imperialism.
Effects: Political, Economic, and Ideological Consequences
- Politically, the war signaled the United States’ arrival as a world power; it gained overseas territories and naval bases from the Caribbean to the Pacific.
- Economically, the U.S. gained access to new markets and resources, particularly in Asia, setting the stage for Dollar Diplomacy and expansion of trade.
- Socially and ideologically, the war fostered both national pride and anti-imperialist backlash. Figures like Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie condemned annexation as a betrayal of democratic principles.
- The war also inspired Latin American anxiety about growing U.S. dominance, influencing regional diplomacy in the early 20th century.
Legacy
- The Spanish–American War was a short conflict with long-lasting consequences: it ushered in a new era of American global engagement, military modernization, and imperial competition.
- It transformed the U.S. into a transoceanic power, with territories in both hemispheres, while exposing internal tensions between expansion and democracy.
- The war also reshaped inter-American relations, marking the U.S.’s shift from “protector” to regional hegemon.
Exam technique
- Emphasize the multi-causal nature of the war by combining humanitarian, economic, and ideological motives.
- Highlight how modernization (navy, communication, industrial capacity) turned expansionist theory into action.
- Use Cuba and the Philippines as comparative examples of liberation vs. imperialism.
Common Mistake
- Treating the war solely as U.S. aggression without mentioning Cuban agency.
- Ignoring the domestic ideological divide between imperialists and anti-imperialists.
Self review
- To what extent was the Spanish–American War (1898) caused by economic rather than ideological factors?
- Assess the impact of the Spanish–American War on U.S. foreign policy and international standing.
- Examine how modernization influenced the conduct and outcomes of the Spanish–American War.
