Background
- At the turn of the 20th century, the United States had emerged from the Spanish–American War as a global power.
- To manage its growing influence, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean, three successive presidents developed distinct yet overlapping approaches: Theodore Roosevelt’s Big Stick Diplomacy, William Howard Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy, and Woodrow Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy.
- Each policy reflected modernization, economic expansion, and evolving ideas about America’s global responsibility.
Definition
Roosevelt Corollary
Theodore Roosevelt’s 1904 addition to the Monroe Doctrine, asserting the U.S. right to intervene in Latin American nations to preserve order and stability.
Big Stick Diplomacy (Theodore Roosevelt, 1901–1909)
- Rooted in Roosevelt’s motto, “Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far,” this policy emphasized diplomacy backed by the credible threat of military force.
- Roosevelt sought to protect U.S. interests and maintain stability in Latin America, arguing that the U.S. had a duty to act as the region’s “policeman.”
- The Roosevelt Corollary (1904) to the Monroe Doctrine justified intervention in cases of “chronic wrongdoing,” asserting that the U.S. could intervene pre-emptively to prevent European involvement.
Case study
U.S. Intervention in the Dominican Republic (1905–1907)
- Facing bankruptcy, the Dominican Republic risked European debt collection and possible occupation.
- Roosevelt used the Corollary to justify U.S. takeover of Dominican customs houses to ensure debt repayment to foreign creditors.
- This arrangement established a U.S. protectorate-like financial supervision, stabilizing revenue but limiting Dominican sovereignty.
- It set a precedent for future U.S. involvement in the region, portraying intervention as a stabilizing measure while securing American economic influence.
- The success of the policy encouraged similar interventions in Cuba (1906–1909) and Nicaragua (1909–1910), signaling the shift from isolation to regional management.
Definition
Protectorate
A state controlled and protected by another nation, often retaining nominal independence while losing autonomy in key areas.
Dollar Diplomacy (William Howard Taft, 1909–1913)
- Taft believed economic power was more effective and less confrontational than military force.
- His administration promoted U.S. investments abroad, particularly in Central America and China, to achieve political stability and open new markets.
- The aim was to replace European loans with U.S. capital, extending influence while maintaining peace.
Case study
U.S. Economic Intervention in Nicaragua (1909–1912)
- When a nationalist revolt threatened U.S. business interests, Taft sent Marines to support conservative forces and protect American investors.
- The U.S. gained control of Nicaragua’s customs revenues and national bank, linking financial policy directly to foreign control.
- By 1912, over 2,000 U.S. troops occupied the country, and a U.S.-backed government guaranteed American economic privileges.
- Though justified as stabilization, this policy deepened anti-U.S. sentiment and inspired nationalist resistance, particularly under Augusto César Sandino in the 1920s.
- Dollar Diplomacy ultimately tied U.S. prestige to private investment, making economic crises abroad a pretext for intervention.
Moral Diplomacy (Woodrow Wilson, 1913–1921)
- Wilson rejected both military coercion and purely economic motives, promoting foreign policy based on democracy, morality, and self-determination.
- However, he soon discovered that moral ideals often clashed with geopolitical realities.
- Wilson intervened in Latin America more than either of his predecessors, believing U.S. action was justified to promote “good government.”
Comparative Impact and Legacy
- Collectively, these policies entrenched the United States as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere, marking the high point of interventionism.
- Big Stick Diplomacy established military precedent; Dollar Diplomacy tied U.S. power to capital investment; Moral Diplomacy justified involvement under ethical pretexts.
- Latin American nations responded with growing nationalism and anti-imperialist movements, culminating in demands for sovereignty and the eventual Good Neighbor Policy (1933).
- These interventions laid the groundwork for long-term economic dependence and political instability, shaping hemispheric relations well into the 20th century.
Exam technique
- Use comparative analysis: show how all three policies shared interventionist logic but differed in justification (military, economic, moral).
- Integrate specific Latin American case studies to demonstrate regional impact.
- Link modernization (railroads, telegraph, steamships) to the ability to enforce intervention.
Common Mistake
- Treating the policies as separate rather than part of a continuum of U.S. expansionism.
- Ignoring Latin American reactions, such as nationalist or revolutionary responses.
Self review
- To what extent did U.S. foreign policies between 1901 and 1920 strengthen or weaken inter-American relations?
- Examine how Big Stick, Dollar, and Moral Diplomacy reflected continuity and change in U.S. imperial ambitions.
- Assess the impact of modernization on the implementation and success of U.S. foreign policies in Latin America.
