- Congress of Vienna (1815): Italy was divided into many states and placed under conservative rulers, with Austria gaining strong influence in Lombardy and Venetia. This crushed hopes for unification.
- Austrian dominance: Austria controlled northern Italy directly and interfered in other Italian states.
- Metternich’s role: As Austrian Chancellor, Metternich became the “policeman of Europe,” suppressing revolts and using censorship and spies to crush nationalism and liberalism.
- Nationalism and liberalism: Italian nationalists wanted independence from Austria and unity, while liberals sought constitutions, freedoms, and reforms.
- Revolutions of 1820–21: Secret societies like the Carbonari led uprisings in Naples and Piedmont, but Austria intervened and crushed them, showing Italy’s weakness.
- Revolts of 1830–31: New revolts in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States failed because of poor coordination and Austrian military intervention.
- Mazzini’s impact: Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831, spreading nationalist ideas and inspiring youth, though his revolts were unsuccessful.
- Gioberti’s ideas: Vincenzo Gioberti promoted a “neo-Guelph” vision, an Italian confederation led by the Pope.
- The Papacy’s role: Popes were conservative, fearing liberalism would weaken their power. Pope Gregory XVI opposed nationalism, while Pope Pius IX initially showed reformist leanings but later rejected revolution.
- Revolutions of 1848–49: Inspired by unrest across Europe, Italians rose against Austrian rule and for unity. Despite enthusiasm, poor leadership, divisions, and Austrian strength led to defeat. The revolutions raised hopes but ended in disillusionment.
Exam technique
- In essays, compare different revolts (1820–21, 1830–31, 1848–49) to show why they failed (foreign intervention, lack of unity, weak leadership.)
- Don’t just narrate what Mazzini or Gioberti did; link their ideas to broader themes like nationalism, Austrian repression, and Papal opposition.
Common Mistake
- Students often state Austria “controlled all of Italy,” but in reality it directly ruled Lombardy–Venetia and influenced other states indirectly.
- Students sometimes treat nationalism and liberalism as the same, but while they overlapped, liberals focused on constitutions and rights, while nationalists emphasized unity and independence.
Self review
- Evaluate the impact of Austrian dominance on Italian political and nationalist developments between 1815 and 1849.
- To what extent did divisions among Italian nationalists explain the failures of revolutions in the period 1820–1849?
- Assess the significance of the papacy in shaping the course of Italian nationalism and liberalism between 1815 and 1849.
