Independence Movements in the Americas Notes

Political Causes

1. Colonial governments were dominated by officials sent from Europe, leaving Creoles (American-born Europeans) frustrated by their exclusion from top administrative and military positions.
2. The weakening of European monarchies during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) disrupted colonial control, creating opportunities for local elites to claim political power.
3. The American Revolution (1776) and later the French Revolution (1789) provided powerful examples of successful challenges to monarchy and empire, inspiring leaders across the Americas.

Economic Causes

1. The mercantilist system restricted colonies to trade only with their mother countries, limiting profits and encouraging smuggling and resentment among colonial merchants.
2. Creole elites, plantation owners, and traders sought economic freedom, particularly free trade and control over natural resources, without interference from Europe.
3. The extraction of wealth for European benefit (e.g., silver from Peru, sugar from the Caribbean) fueled the belief that colonial economies were being exploited for imperial gain.

Social and Religious Causes

1. Deep racial and class divisions, between peninsulares (Europe-born whites), Creoles, mestizos, Indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans, created resentment and instability in colonial societies.
2. The Catholic Church played a complex role: while it often supported royal authority, some clergy, like Father Miguel Hidalgo in Mexico, preached reform and inspired rebellion through religious rhetoric.
3. The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) demonstrated that oppressed groups could rise up and win freedom, influencing both revolutionary movements and elite fears.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideas

1. Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau shaped the thinking of independence leaders, promoting ideas like natural rights, consent of the governed, and separation of powers.
2. Leaders like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín envisioned new nations built on liberty and equality, though in practice, independence often benefited the Creole elite more than the lower classes.

Role of Foreign Intervention

1. Britain and France played indirect roles. Britain supported independence movements to weaken Spain’s trade monopoly, while Napoleon’s invasion of Spain (1808) destabilized the empire and sparked colonial revolts.
2. The United States symbolized republican ideals and, after gaining independence, sought to influence the region (as seen in the Monroe Doctrine, 1823).

Conflicts and Issues Leading to War

1. Power struggles between royalist loyalists and independence leaders often turned violent, leading to civil wars that reshaped national identities.
2. In Latin America, movements were fragmented. Different regions (Venezuela, Argentina, Mexico) fought separate wars, often motivated by local rather than continental unity.
3. The wars of independence led to massive destruction and social upheaval, replacing colonial rule with fragile new republics struggling to define their governance.