Came under the control of powerful noble families, most notably the Visconti (1277–1447) and later the Sforza dynasty (from 1450).
Turned Milan into a principality where power was concentrated in one ruler and his family.
Marked by centralized authority, military strength, and dynastic politics, rather than republican institutions.
The dukes used mercenary armies (condottieri) and patronage of artists and scholars to maintain control and project prestige.
Florence
Florence was formally a republic, but in practice it was dominated by powerful families and guilds.
Political participation limited to wealthy elites.
The Medici family manipulated republican institutions and used patronage networks to secure loyalty.
Venice
Venice developed a stable oligarchic republic dominated by the patrician class, whose membership was tightly controlled.
The Doge, elected for life, was the ceremonial head of state.
Venice’s government emphasized collective rule, stability, and continuity, avoiding the political upheavals common in Florence and Milan.
Common Mistake
Treating all Italian city-states as the same type of government.
Listing rulers (e.g., Visconti, Medici, Doges) without explaining how their leadership affected the form and stability of government.
Answering about one city-state in detail but failing to compare and contrast across all three.
Exam technique
Organize essays thematically (e.g., “republican institutions,” “role of elites,” “stability and instability”).
Show how Florence stayed a republic in name but shifted toward Medici oligarchy, while Venice maintained stability, and Milan became a hereditary principality.
Active recall
Compare and contrast the forms of government in Milan, Florence, and Venice during the Renaissance.
To what extent were Italian city-states truly republican in the 15th century
Assess the role of powerful families and elites in shaping the governments of Renaissance Italy.