Overview and Characteristics of U.S. Foreign Policy (1961–1981)
- From John F. Kennedy to Jimmy Carter, U.S. foreign policy in the Americas shifted between ideological confrontation and pragmatic diplomacy.
- The main goal across administrations was to contain communism, protect U.S. economic interests, and maintain hemispheric dominance during the Cold War.
- Leaders adapted their approaches: Kennedy used aid and reform, Nixon relied on covert operations and realpolitik, and Carter emphasized human rights and diplomacy.
- The region experienced both cooperation and resentment as Latin American nations reacted to U.S. intervention and hypocrisy.
Definition
Hegemony
- Leadership or dominance of one country over others, often seen in U.S.–Latin American relations.
Case study
The Alliance for Progress (1961)
Background and Goals
- Launched by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, the Alliance for Progress was a U.S. program to strengthen ties with Latin America during the Cold War.
- It aimed to reduce poverty, promote democracy, and prevent the spread of communism after the Cuban Revolution (1959) alarmed U.S. leaders.
- The U.S. promised $20 billion in aid over ten years to help Latin American countries modernize their economies, improve education, and carry out land reform.
- The program reflected Kennedy’s belief in modernization theory i.e. that economic growth would lead to social stability and democratic governments.
Implementation and Impact
- Some early successes included infrastructure projects, education programs, and housing developments across Latin America.
- However, many governments misused funds, and reforms were limited by corruption and political resistancefrom local elites.
- By the late 1960s, the program failed to achieve lasting change, as inequality, poverty, and unrest persisted.
- Latin Americans grew disillusioned, seeing the Alliance as a U.S. tool to maintain influence rather than a genuine partnership.
Definition
Modernization Theory
- The belief that economic development and education would naturally lead to democracy and social stability.
Nixon’s Covert Operations and Chile (1969–1974)
- President Richard Nixon adopted a more hardline, realist approach (realpolitik), prioritizing U.S. security and stability over democracy.
- When socialist Salvador Allende won Chile’s 1970 election, Nixon and Henry Kissinger saw it as a threat to U.S. influence and the balance of power.
- The CIA funded strikes, propaganda, and opposition groups to destabilize Allende’s government.
- In 1973, the Chilean military, led by Augusto Pinochet, launched a coup supported indirectly by the U.S.
- The result was a brutal dictatorship, widespread human rights violations, and damaged U.S. credibility in Latin America.
Case study
Augusto Pinochet (Chile, 1973–1990)
Background and Rise to Power
- In 1970, socialist leader Salvador Allende was democratically elected president of Chile, promising land reform, nationalization of industries, and social welfare programs.
- The U.S. government, led by President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, viewed Allende’s policies as a communist threat in Latin America.
- The CIA supported opposition groups, funded strikes, and spread propaganda to destabilize Allende’s government.
- On September 11, 1973, General Augusto Pinochet, commander-in-chief of the army, led a military coup that overthrew Allende, who died during the takeover..
Rule and Impact
- Pinochet established a military dictatorship, dissolving Congress, banning political parties, and censoring the media.
- His regime was marked by human rights abuses, including imprisonment, torture, and the disappearance of over 3,000 political opponents.
- Economically, he adopted free-market reforms advised by the “Chicago Boys,” privatizing industries and reducing state control, which stabilized inflation but widened inequality.
- The U.S. supported Pinochet’s regime during the Cold War, valuing anti-communist stability over democracy.
- He remained in power until 1990, when growing opposition and international pressure forced a return to civilian rule after a national referendum.
Definition
Authoritarianism
- Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the consolidation of power in a single leader or small group, limited political pluralism, repression of dissent, and little to no accountability to the public.
Carter’s Human Rights Policy and the Panama Canal Treaty (1977–1981)
Carter’s Human Rights Approach
- President Jimmy Carter tried to shift U.S. foreign policy toward moral leadership, emphasizing human rights, democracy, and diplomacy.
- He reduced aid to authoritarian regimes with poor human rights records, such as Argentina and Nicaragua, though inconsistently applied.
- His policy was criticized as idealistic and sometimes ineffective, especially during crises like Iran (1979) and Afghanistan (1979).
The Panama Canal Treaty (1977)
- Carter negotiated a treaty with Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos, agreeing to transfer control of the Panama Canal to Panama by 1999.
- The treaty aimed to rebuild trust in Latin America and end a symbol of U.S. imperialism.
- While controversial in the U.S., the move improved regional relations and became one of Carter’s greatest foreign policy successes.
Definition
Sovereignty
- Sovereignty is the supreme authority within a state, granting it the power to govern itself without interference from external forces.
Common Mistake
- Treating Kennedy, Nixon, and Carter as completely separate eras instead of connecting them through evolving Cold War priorities.
- Ignoring Latin American perspectives, focusing only on what the U.S. did rather than how regional nations reacted.
- Overemphasizing military events while neglecting economic aid and diplomacy (Alliance for Progress, Panama Canal Treaty).
Exam technique
- Use a compare-and-contrast structure (Kennedy vs Nixon vs Carter) to show analytical range.
- Always connect U.S. actions to Cold War containment or to domestic political pressures (e.g., anti-communist fear, human rights ideals).
- Include at least one success and one failure per administration to demonstrate balance in evaluation.
Theory of Knowledge
- Ethics and Power: Can a superpower promote democracy while supporting dictatorships?
- Knowledge and Perspective: How does propaganda shape our understanding of “aid” versus “intervention”?
- Morality in Policy: Is human rights diplomacy possible in a world driven by national interest?
Self review
- To what extent did U.S. foreign policy in Latin America between 1961 and 1981 reflect Cold War priorities rather than regional needs?
- Assess the impact of Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress and Carter’s human rights policies on U.S.–Latin American relations.
- Examine how far Nixon’s covert operations in Latin America represented a continuation rather than a change in U.S. Cold War policy.
