Causes of the First Opium War (1839–1842)
- Trade Imbalance
- Britain imported vast amounts of tea, silk, and porcelain but China wanted little in return; silver flowed out of Britain.
- Opium Trade
- To correct the imbalance, Britain illegally sold opium from India to China, causing addiction and silver drain.
- Chinese Crackdown
- The Qing government banned opium; Commissioner Lin Zexu destroyed opium stocks at Canton (1839) and wrote to Queen Victoria appealing for moral restraint.
- Cultural Misunderstanding
- Britain demanded free trade and diplomatic equality; Qing viewed foreign merchants as inferiors under the tributary system.
- Immediate Cause
- British merchants resisted trade restrictions; a skirmish over seized opium shipments sparked military retaliation.
Definition
Commissioner Lin Zexu
- Qing official who led anti-opium efforts; symbol of Chinese moral resistance.
Definition
Free Trade
- British ideology that markets should be open and unrestricted by governments.
Case study
The First Opium War (1839–1842)
Course of the War
- Britain used superior naval technology (steam-powered gunboats) to blockade Chinese ports.
- Qing forces, relying on outdated weapons, suffered repeated defeats.
- Major battles: Canton, Amoy (Xiamen), and Nanjing.
- War ended with Qing defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing (1842).
Consequences
- Treaty of Nanjing (1842): First of the unequal treaties. It opened five ports to foreign trade, ceded Hong Kongto Britain, and granted extraterritoriality to British citizens.
- China paid a large indemnity and lost control over its tariffs.
- Shattered the tribute system. Westerners now demanded equal diplomatic status.
- Exposed Qing military weakness and led to internal unrest.
- Marked the start of the “Century of Humiliation.”
Definition
Extraterritoriality
- Foreign citizens exempt from local laws.
Definition
Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
- First unequal treaty; legalized British trade privileges.
Causes and Course of the Second Opium War (1856–1860)
- British Frustration
- The Treaty of Nanjing didn’t guarantee full diplomatic rights or legalization of opium.
- Arrow Incident (1856)
- Chinese officials boarded a British-registered ship, providing Britain a pretext to renew war.
- French Involvement: France joined, using the killing of a missionary as justification.
- Military Superiority
- Britain and France captured Canton, then marched on Beijing after fierce fighting at Taku Forts.
- Qing Defeat
- The Summer Palace was looted and burned; the emperor fled, leading to the Treaties of Tianjin (1858) and Beijing (1860).
Definition
Arrow Incident
- Conflict between Chinese authorities and British traders used to justify war.
Definition
Treaties of Tianjin and Beijing
- Opened more ports and legalized missionary activity.
Case study
The Second Opium War (1856–1860)
Treaties and Terms
- Treaty of Tianjin (1858): Opened 11 new ports, allowed foreign legations in Beijing, and legalized opium trade.
- Treaty of Beijing (1860): Ceded Kowloon Peninsula to Britain and gave France freedom for Christian missions.
- Western powers gained the right to station ambassadors in Beijing.
- China was forced to accept foreign navigation on the Yangtze River.
- Qing sovereignty weakened further; Western influence deepened.
Consequences
- Marked China’s full subjugation to Western imperialism.
- Weakened the Qing government’s legitimacy among its people.
- Stimulated anti-foreign sentiment and future uprisings (e.g., Taiping, Boxer Rebellion).
- Opened China to missionaries, traders, and unequal economic dependency.
- Accelerated the call for modernization and reform (later the Self-Strengthening Movement).
Common Mistake
- Seeing the wars as purely about drugs: They were also about trade rights, diplomacy, and imperial power.
- Confusing treaties: Nanjing (1842) = First War; Tianjin and Beijing (1858–60) = Second War.
- Overlooking long-term effects: The wars marked the start of China’s semi-colonial era, not just military loss.
Exam technique
- Chronological Clarity: Divide answers into First War → Second War → Consequences.
- Use Treaties as Anchors: Mention key terms (ports, Hong Kong, indemnities).
- Connect to Later Themes: Link to internal unrest and Self-Strengthening Movement for continuity.
Self review
- Examine the main causes of the First and Second Opium Wars.
- Assess the impact of the unequal treaties on Qing China’s sovereignty and economy.
- To what extent did the Opium Wars mark a turning point in China’s relationship with the West?
