Overview
- The Reform Act of 1832 gave more middle-class men the vote and redistributed seats from “rotten boroughs” to growing industrial towns, but it left most working-class men excluded.
- The Second Reform Act of 1867 extended the vote to many urban working-class men, nearly doubling the electorate and strengthening the role of the House of Commons.
- The Third Reform Act (1884–1885) expanded voting rights to rural workers, creating a more democratic system where about two-thirds of adult men could now vote.
- These reforms forced both the Conservatives and Liberals to build stronger party organizations and campaign more effectively, since they had to appeal to a larger and more diverse electorate.
Causes
- Industrialization: Rapid urban growth led to demands for representation in Parliament.
- Political Pressure: The Whigs, led by Earl Grey, sought to address public discontent and prevent revolution.
- Social Unrest: Events like the Peterloo Massacre (1819) highlighted the need for reform.
Provisions
- Redistribution of Seats: Abolished 56 rotten boroughs and reduced representation in 30 others.
- Extension of the Franchise: Granted voting rights to men owning property worth £10 or more annually, increasing the electorate by about 50%.
- Representation for Industrial Cities: Cities like Manchester and Birmingham gained representation.
Impact
- Increased Electorate: The number of voters rose from 435,000 to 652,000.
- Middle-Class Influence: The reform favored the middle class, leaving the working class largely disenfranchised.
- Foundation for Future Reforms: Set a precedent for gradual, peaceful reform.
The 1867 Reform Act (Second Reform Act)
Causes
- Public Pressure: The Reform League and Reform Union campaigned for broader suffrage.
- Political Strategy: The Conservative Party, led by Benjamin Disraeli, aimed to gain political advantage by supporting reform.
Provisions
- Urban Working-Class Vote: Extended the franchise to male householders in towns, doubling the electorate to 2 million.
- Redistribution: Seats were reallocated to better represent urban areas.
Impact
- Working-Class Participation: Significant inclusion of urban workers in the electorate.
- Political Realignment: Parties began to appeal to a broader base, leading to more organized political campaigning.
The 1884 Reform Act (Third Reform Act)
Causes
- Demand for Rural Reform: The 1867 Act had primarily benefited urban areas, leaving rural workers disenfranchised.
- Liberal Leadership: Prime Minister William Gladstone championed the cause of equal representation.
Provisions
- Rural Franchise Extension: Granted voting rights to male householders in rural areas, adding 2.5 million voters.
- Uniform Franchise: Established a consistent voting qualification across urban and rural areas.
Impact
- Electorate Expansion: The electorate grew to 5.5 million, encompassing about 60% of adult males.
- Political Mobilization: Increased voter participation led to the rise of mass political parties.
The 1918 Representation of the People Act
Causes
- World War I: The war effort highlighted the contributions of working men and women, strengthening the case for broader suffrage.
- Suffragette Movement: Persistent campaigning by groups like the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) pressured the government.
Provisions
- Universal Male Suffrage: All men over 21 gained the right to vote, regardless of property ownership.
- Women's Suffrage: Women over 30 who met minimum property requirements were enfranchised, adding 8.4 million women to the electorate.
Impact
- Democratization: The electorate tripled to 21 million, making the system more representative.
- Women's Political Participation: Paved the way for the 1928 Equal Franchise Act, which granted equal voting rights to women.
The 1928 Equal Franchise Act
Causes
- Gender Equality Movement: Continued advocacy for women's rights.
- Political Consensus: Broad agreement across parties on the need for equal suffrage.
Provisions
- Equal Voting Rights: Women gained the right to vote at age 21, on par with men.
Impact
- Full Adult Suffrage: Established universal suffrage for adults, marking the culmination of nearly a century of reform.
- Increased Female Electorate: Women constituted a majority of voters, influencing political agendas.
Historiography
- Traditional View: Historians like Asa Briggs emphasize the role of gradualism and consensus in British reform, contrasting it with revolutionary change in other countries.
- Marxist Perspective: Eric Hobsbawm argues that reforms were driven by the need to preserve the existing social order and prevent revolution.
- Feminist Interpretation: Scholars highlight the undervalued role of women in driving suffrage reforms, particularly through activism and wartime contributions.
Self review
- Assess the reasons for the passing of the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884–1885.
- Examine the consequences of the extension of the franchise for political parties in Britain between 1832 and 1885.
- To what extent did the Reform Acts transform Britain into a democracy by 1885?
